This article covers the phonology, phonological system of South African English (SAE) as spoken by White South Africans. While there is some variation among speakers, SAE typically has a number of features in common with English in southern England, English as it is spoken in southern England (in places like London), such as Rhoticity in English, non-rhoticity and the trap–bath split, – split. The two main phonological features that mark South African English as distinct are the behaviour of the vowels in and . The vowel tends to be "split" so that there is a clear Allophone, allophonic variation between the front and central or . The vowel is characteristically back in the General and Broad varieties of SAE. The tendency to monophthongise and to and respectively, are also typical features of General and Broad White South African English. General South African English features phonemic vowel length (so that ''ferry'' and ''fairy'' as well as ''cot'' and ''cart'' differ only in length) as well as phonemic roundedness, so that ''fairy'' is distinguished from ''furry'' by roundedness. Features involving consonants include the tendency for (as in ''tune'') and (as in ''dune'') to be realised as and , respectively (See Yod coalescence), and has a strong tendency to be voiced initially.

Vowels

The vocalic phonemes of South African English are as follows: * The original short front vowels , and underwent a vowel shift similar to that found in New Zealand English, though not as extreme: ** The vowel varies from to in General and Cultivated SAE. However, the new prestige value in younger Johannesburg speakers of the General variety (particularly those who live in the wealthy northern suburbs of Johannesburg, suburbs) seems to be open front , the same as in Modern RP. Before , the fully open is the norm in the General variety, whereas before voiced stops as well as bilabial and alveolar nasals the vowel tends to be centralised and lengthened to , often with slight diphthongisation (). Broad can be as close as mid , encroaching on the Cultivated realisation of . ** is close-mid or higher in General, often with centralisation (it is unclear whether the last allophone is distinct from the front allophone of in the General variety). Variants above the close-mid height are typical of female speech. General is similar enough to in RP and similar accents as to cause perceptual problems for outsiders. Broad variants are very similar to the General ones, but in Cultivated the vowel can be as open as (within the RP norm). In General and Broad, the vowel can be lowered to or even when it occurs before . ** As indicated in the transcription, the vowel has a schwa-like quality even in stressed positions, except when in contact with velars and palatals, after as well as in the word-initial position, where the conservative quality (further fronted to in Broad) is retained. Due to weak vowel merger, neither ''Lenin'' and ''Lennon'' nor ''except'' and ''accept'' are distinct in SAE: . The quality of the merged vowel is typically ( in some Broad varieties), even in unstressed closed syllables. This means that all three vowels of ''limited'' are phonetically the same: . These variants are covered by the symbol (without the lowering diacritic) in phonetic transcription. In the word-final position, the vowel is mid in all varieties, with some lowering to or even being possible in the Cultivated variety. These allophones are written with in phonetic transcription, and the same symbol is used for word-initial and postvocalic instances of word-internal (, etc.). As far as the phonemic analysis is concerned, the stressed central has been variously analysed as an allophone of , an allophone of (making it a stressable vowel), an allophone of a merged / vowel (which is the analysis adopted in this article) or a phoneme of its own that is separate from both and the front variety of . *** In the Cultivated variety, ''Lenin'' and ''except'' on the one hand and ''Lennon'' and ''accept'' on the other may be distinct, as in RP. In addition, stressed instances of are consistently front (as in RP), without any centralisation, whereas the schwa is consistently mid, so that the unstressed vowels of ''Lenin'' and ''Lennon'' contrast not only by backness but also by height: . The quality occurs also in ''happy'' and ''immediately'' (cf. General ). For this reason, this variety is analysed as containing an extra phoneme. * The vowel is a long close front monophthong , either close to cardinal or slightly mid-centralised. It does not have a tendency to diphthongise, which distinguishes SAE from Australian and New Zealand English. * The vowel is typically a weakly rounded retracted central vowel , somewhat more central than the traditional RP value. Younger speakers of the General variety (especially females) often use a fully central . This vowel is effectively the rounded counterpart of . Backer and sometimes more rounded variants () occur before . Broad SAE can feature a more rounded vowel, but that is more common in Afrikaans English. * The vowel is usually central or somewhat fronter in White varieties, though in the Cultivated variety, it is closer to (typically not fully back, thus ), which is also the normal realisation before in other varieties. Younger (particularly female) speakers of the General variety use an even more front vowel , so that ''food'' may be distinguished from ''feed'' only by rounding. The vowel is often a monophthong, but there is some tendency to diphthongise it before sonorants (as in ''wounded'' and ''school'' ). * In the General variety, , and are commonly monophthongized to , (phonetically between and a monophthongal ) and . Among those, the monophthongal variant of is the most common. The last monophthong contrasts with the close-mid , which stands for . The monophthonging of can cause intelligiblity problems for outsiders; Roger Lass says that he himself once misunderstood the phrase ''the total onslaught'' for ''the turtle onslaught'' . On the other hand, does not monophthongize. In addition, is almost monophthongal , resulting in a near-merger of with , which is normally a close-mid monophthong .

Transcriptions

Sources differ in the way they transcribe South African English. The differences are listed below. The traditional phonemic orthography for the Received Pronunciation as well as the reformed phonemic orthographies for Australian and New Zealand English have been added for the sake of comparison.

Consonants

Plosives

* In Broad White South African English, voiceless plosives tend to be Aspiration (phonetics), unaspirated in all positions, which serves as a marker of this subvariety. This is usually thought to be an Afrikaans influence. * General and Cultivated varieties aspirate before a stressed syllable, unless they are followed by an within the same syllable. ** Speakers of the General variety can strongly affricate the syllable-final to , so that ''wanting'' can be pronounced . * are normally Alveolar consonant, alveolar. In the Broad variety, they tend to be dental . This pronunciation also occurs in older speakers of the Jewish subvariety of General SAE.

Fricatives and affricates

* occurs only in words borrowed from Afrikaans and Khoisan, such as ''gogga'' 'insect'. Many speakers realise as uvular , a sound which is more common in Afrikaans. * may be realised as in Broad varieties (see Th-fronting, ''Th''-fronting), but it is more accurate to say that it is a feature of Afrikaans English. This is especially common word-finally (as in ''myth'' ). * In Indian variety, the labiodental fricatives are realised without audible friction, i.e. as approximants . * In General and Cultivated varieties, intervocalic may be Voiced glottal fricative, voiced, so that ''ahead'' can be pronounced . * There is not a full agreement about the voicing of in Broad varieties: ** states that: *** Voiced is the normal realisation of in Broad varieties. *** It is often deleted, e.g. in word-initial stressed syllables (as in ''house''), but at least as often, it is pronounced even if it seems deleted. The vowel that follows the allophone in the word-initial syllable often carries a low or low rising tone, which, in rapid speech, can be the only trace of the deleted . That creates potentially minimal tonal pairs like ''oh'' (neutral or high falling , phonemically ) vs. ''hoe'' (low or low rising , phonemically ). In General, these are normally pronounced and , without any tonal difference. ** states that in Broad varieties close to Afrikaans English, is voiced before a stressed vowel.

Sonorants

* General and Broad varieties have a wine–whine merger. However, some speakers of Cultivated SAE (particularly the elderly) still distinguish from , so that ''which'' is not homophonous with ''witch'' . * has two allophones: ** Clear (neutral or somewhat Palatalization (phonetics), palatalised) in syllable-initial and intervocalic positions (as in ''look'' and ''polar'' ). *** In Cultivated variety, clear is often also used word-finally when another word begins with a vowel (as in ''call up'' , which in General and Broad is pronounced ). ** Velarisation, Velarised (or Uvularisation, uvularised ) in pre-consonantal and word-final positions. *** One source states that the dark has a "hollow Pharyngealisation, pharyngealised" quality , rather than velarised or uvularised. * In the Broad variety, the sequences and tend not to form syllabic and , so that ''button'' and ''middle'' are phonetically and (compare General and ). John Wells analyses the broad pronunciation of these words as having a secondarily stressed schwa in the last syllable: , . * In Cultivated and General varieties, is an approximant, usually Postalveolar consonant, postalveolar or (less commonly) Retroflex consonant, retroflex. In emphatic speech, Cultivated speakers may realise as a (often long) trill . Older speakers of the Cultivated variety may realise intervocalic as a tap (as in ''very'' ), a feature which is becoming increasingly rare. * Broad SAE realises as a Tap consonant, tap , sometimes even as a trill - a pronunciation which is at times stigmatised as a marker of this variety. The trill is more commonly considered a feature of the second language Afrikaans English variety. * Another possible realisation of is uvular trill , which has been reported to occur in the Cape Flats English, Cape Flats dialect. * South African English is Rhotic and non-rhotic accents, non-rhotic, except for some Broad varieties spoken in the Cape Province (typically in -''er'' suffixes, as in ''writer'' ). It appears that postvocalic is entering the speech of younger people under the influence of American English. * Linking and intrusive R, Linking (as in ''for a while'' ) is used only by some speakers: . * There is not a full agreement about Linking and intrusive R, intrusive (as in ''law and order'') in South African English: ** states that it is rare, and some speakers with linking never use the intrusive . ** states that it is absent from this variety. *In contexts where many British and Australian accents use the intrusive , speakers of South African English who do not use the intrusive create an intervocalic hiatus. In these varieties, phrases such as ''law and order'' can be subject to the following processes: ** Vowel deletion: ; ** Adding a semivowel corresponding to the preceding vowel: ; ** Inserting a glottal stop: . This is typical of Broad varieties. * Before a high front vowel, undergoes fortition to in Broad and some of the General varieties, so that ''yeast'' can be pronounced .

References

Bibliography

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