Shanshan (; ug, پىچان, Pichan, Piqan) was a kingdom located at the north-eastern end of the Taklamakan Desert near the great, but now mostly dry, salt lake known as Lop Nur.
The kingdom was originally an independent city-state, known in the almost undocumented language of its inhabitants as '' Kröran'' or ''Kroraina'' – which is commonly rendered in Chinese as ''Loulan''. The Western Han dynasty took direct control of the kingdom some time after 77 BCE, and it was later known in Chinese as Shanshan. The archaeologist J. P. Mallory has suggested that the name Shanshan may be derived from the name of another city in the area, ''
Cherchen
Qiemo County () as the official romanized name, also transliterated from Uyghur as Qarqan County ( Uyghur: ; ), is a county under the administration of the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the ...
'' (later known in Chinese as ''Qiemo'').
Location
The kingdom of Kröran (Loulan), later Shanshan, was probably founded at a strategically located walled town, near the north-west corner of Lop Nur, next to the then outflow of the Tarim River into Lop Nur (40° 9’ N, 89° 5’ E). The site of Kröran covered about with a Buddhist pagoda about high, numerous houses, and irrigation ditches.
The kingdom included the city of Charklik (near the modern town of Ruoqiang to the south-west of Lop Nur),
Cherchen
Qiemo County () as the official romanized name, also transliterated from Uyghur as Qarqan County ( Uyghur: ; ), is a county under the administration of the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the ...
(later Qiemo), as well as Niya, further to the south-west.
History
Han dynasty
In 126 BCE, the Chinese envoy, Zhang Qian described
Loulan
Loulan, also called Krorän or Kroraina ( zh, s=, t=, p=Lóulán <
''lo-lɑn'' < as a fortified city near Lop Nur.
Because of its position on what became the main routes from China to the West, controlling both the Southern Route between Dunhuang and Khotan, and the main
Silk Route
The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and reli ...
Kucha
Kucha, or Kuche (also: ''Kuçar'', ''Kuchar''; ug, كۇچار, Кучар; zh, t= 龜茲, p=Qiūcí, zh, t= 庫車, p=Kùchē; sa, कूचीन, translit=Kūcīna), was an ancient Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road ...
and Kashgar during the Former Han and Later Han; control of the kingdom was regularly contested between the Chinese and the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu repeatedly contested the Han Chinese for control of the region until well into the 2nd century CE.
In 77 BCE, the Chinese envoy Fu Jiezi was sent to kill the Loulan king, named Changgui or Angui (嘗歸 or 安歸), after several Han envoys were kidnapped and killed. He arrived on the pretext of carrying gold and valuables to the outer states and intending to give a presentation to the king, but stabbed the Loulan king to death while he was drunk. The king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) was then installed as the king of Loulan by the Han ruler, and the kingdom was renamed Shanshan.
The newly installed king requested the presence of Han forces in Yixun (伊循), due to his fear of retribution from the sons of the assassinated king in Loulan. Chinese army officers were therefore sent to colonise the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.
In 25 CE it was recorded that Shanshan was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 AD, the Han army officer Ban Chao went to Shanshan with a small group of followers, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan offered his allegiance to Han.
Loulan was later recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd century '' Weilüe''. Draft annotated translation of the ''Weilüe'' by John Hill
Endere
Endere is an archaeological site in Xinjiang, China, in the southern Taklamakan Desert, a part of the southern route of the ancient Silk Road. It has been tentatively identified with a place called Saca that is mentioned in documents written in K ...
, originally written around in the middle of the 3rd century CE. The inscription describes the king of Shanshan as a follower of
Mahāyāna Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
— one who has "set forth in the Great Vehicle."Walser, Joseph. ''Nāgārjuna in Context: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture.'' 2005. p. 31 The king who this refers to was probably Aṃgoka, who was the most powerful king of Shanshan. According to Richard Salomon, there is every reason to believe that Mahāyāna Buddhism was prominent in Shanshan at this time and enjoyed royal patronage.
More evidence of official adoption of Mahāyāna Buddhism in Shanshan is seen in a letter inscribed in wood which dates to several decades later. The letter describes the Great Cozbo Ṣamasena as one who is, "beloved of men and gods, honoured by men and gods, blessed with a good name, who has set forth in the Mahāyāna."
Three Kingdoms period
A military colony of 1,000 men was established at Loulan in 260 CE by the Chinese general Suo Mai (索勱). The site was abandoned in 330 CE due to lack of water when the Tarim River, which supported the settlement, changed course and the military garrison was moved 50 km south to Haitou. The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
.
Jin dynasty to early Tang
Chinese rule continued into the
Western Jin dynasty
Western may refer to:
Places
*Western, Nebraska, a village in the US
*Western, New York, a town in the US
* Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia
*Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia
*Western world, countries that i ...
and intermittently in later centuries. It was recorded that in 283 the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign of Emperor Wu of Jin dynasty. In the 5th century, the Northern Wei installed a Chinese king in Loulan and called the city the Shanshan Fort. Then at the end of the 6th century, the Sui dynasty established the city state of Shanshan at Loulan.
The Chinese pilgrim monk,
Faxian
Faxian (法顯 ; 337 CE – c. 422 CE), also referred to as Fa-Hien, Fa-hsien and Sehi, was a Chinese Buddhist monk and translator who traveled by foot from China to India to acquire Buddhist texts. Starting his arduous journey about age 60, h ...
, stayed about a month in Shanshan after a 17-day journey from Dunhuang in 399 CE. He described the country as "rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, some wearing felt and others coarse serge or hair. ... The king professed (our) Law, and there might be in the country more than four thousand monks, who were all students of the hînâyana. ... (The monks) ...were all students of Indian books and the Indian language."
From the 5th century onwards, however, the land was frequently invaded by nomads such as Tuyuhuns, the Rourans, and the
Dingling
The Dingling ( (174 BCE); (200 BCE); Eastern Han Chinese: *''teŋ-leŋ'' <
, and the area became gradually abandoned. In the spring of 442 CE, Loulan was invaded by
Juqu Anzhou
Juqu Anzhou (; died 460) is viewed by some historians as a ruler of the Xiongnu-led Chinese Northern Liang dynasty, as after the state's territory was largely seized by the Northern Wei in 439, and his older brother Juqu Mujian (Prince Ai) was ca ...
and its king fled to Jumo (Cherchen), and Shanshan then came to be ruled from Qiemo.
At around 630 (at the beginning of the Tang dynasty), the remaining Shanshan people, led by Shanfutuo (鄯伏陁), migrated to
Hami
Hami (Kumul) is a prefecture-level city in Eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known as the home of sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city was merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city with t ...
in the Northern area. The Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang passed through this region in 644 on his return from India to China, visited a town called Nafubo (納縛波, thought to be Charklik) of the Loulan country, and he also wrote of Qiemo: "A fortress exists, but not a trace of man".Da Tang Xiyu Ji Original text: 从此东行六百余里至折摩驮那故国。即涅末地也。城郭岿然人烟断绝。复此东北行千余里至纳缚波故国。即楼兰地也。
Modern era
In 2011, the local government decided to undertake a large-scale development aimed at positioning Shanshan as "The Desert Tourism City" to attract a larger number to tourists to the area. Tourism and attraction development consultant Leisure Quest International (USA) was retained to develop a master plan and conceptual design for the development. The plan includes development of a themed destination which would include a walled city reminiscent of ancient Loulan, desert facing hotels, shops and restaurants as well as a themed residential development.
A county is named after Shanshan ( Piqan County) in modern Xinjiang, although it lies outside of the historical area of Shanshan.
Rulers
This is a list of kings who ruled Shanshan from Chinese sources:
* Changgui/Anhui – 嘗歸/安歸 – 92–77 BCE
* Weituqi – 尉屠耆 – 77 BCE
* An – 安 – 40 BCE
* Guang – 廣 – 75 CE
* You Huan – 尤還 – 123 CE
* Yuan Meng – 元孟 – 330 CE
* Xiumito – 休密馱 – 383 CE
* Bilong – 比龍 – 441 CE
* Zhenda – 真達 – 441–445 CE
In addition, the Kharosthi texts also list these kings:
* Tomgraka
* Tajaka
* Pepiya
* Amgvaka
* Mahiri
* Vasmana (=Yuan Meng?)
* Baumer, Christoph. (2000). ''Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin''. Bangkok, White Orchid Books.
* Brough, J. 1965. "Comments on third century Shan-shan and the history of Buddhism." ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies''. XXVIII, 3, pp. 582–612.
* Brough, J. 1970. "Supplementary Notes on Third-Century Shan-Shan." ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies''. XXXIII, pp. 39–45.
* Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. ''China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty''. E. Brill, Leiden. .
*
* Loewe, Michael 1969. "Chinese Relations with Central Asia." ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', 32, pp. 91–103.
* Noble, Peter S. 1930–32 "A Kharoṣṭhī Inscription from Endere." ''Bulletin of the Society of Oriental Studies'', VI, (1930–32), pp. 445–455.
* Stein, Aurel M. 1907. ''Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan'', 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford * Stein, Aurel M. 1921. ''Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China'', 5 vols. London & Oxford. Clarendon Press. Reprint: Delhi. Motilal Banarsidass. 1980 * Stein Aurel M. 1928. ''Innermost Asia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia, Kan-su and Eastern Iran'', 5 vols. Clarendon Press. Reprint: New Delhi. Cosmo Publications. 1981 * Thomas, F. W. 1943–46. "Some Notes On Central-Asian Kharosthī Documents." ''Bulletin of the Society of Oriental Studies'', 11, pp. 513–549.
* Watson, Burton, trans. (1993). ''Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II – Revised Edition''. Columbia University Press, New York. and (pbk)