The Salyes or Salluvii (

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

: ) were an ancient

Celto-Ligurian The Ligures (singular Ligur; Italian: liguri; English: Ligurians) were an ancient people after whom Liguria, a region of present-day north-western Italy, is named. Ancient Liguria corresponded more or less to the current Italian regi ...

people dwelling between the

Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .Greek colony Greek colonization was an organised colonial expansion by the Archaic Greeks into the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea in the period of the 8th–6th centuries BC. This colonization differed from the migrations of the Greek Dark Ages in that i ...

of Massalia during the

Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age ( Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age ( Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostl ...

. Although earlier writers called them 'Ligurian', Strabo used the denomination 'Celto-ligurian', and a Celtic influence is noticeable in their religion, which centred on the cult of the ''tête coupée'' ('severed head'). In fact, the Salyes were most likely at the head of a political and military confederation that united both Gallic and Ligurian tribes. During most of the early history, the Salyes were in conflict with the neighbouring Greek inhabitants of Massalia, and later on with their ally the

Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...

, until the consul

Gaius Sextius Calvinus Gaius Sextius Calvinus was a consul of the Roman Republic in 124 BC. During his consulship, he joined M. Fulvius Flaccus in waging war against the Ligures, Saluvii, and Vocontii in the Mediterranean region of present-day France. He continued as ...

sacked their hill-fort Entremont ca. 122 BC. Revolts against the Roman conquerors were crushed in 90 and 83 BC.

Name

They are mentioned as ''Sallyas'' by

Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...

(mid-1st c. BC), ''Salluvii'' and ''Saluum'' (var. ''Saluium'', ''Salluuiorum'') by

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...

(late 1st c. BC), ''Sálluas'' (Σάλλυας), ''Sállues'' ( Σάλλυες) and ''Salúōn'' (Σαλύων) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), ''Sallui'' and ''Salluuiorum'' by

Pliny Pliny may refer to: People * Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), ancient Roman nobleman, scientist, historian, and author of ''Naturalis Historia'' (''Pliny's Natural History'') * Pliny the Younger (died 113), ancient Roman statesman, orator, w ...

(1st c. AD), ''Sálues'' (Σάλυες; var. Σάλικες) by

Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importance ...

(2nd c. AD), and as ''Salyes'' by

Avienius Postumius Rufius Festus Avienius (sometimes erroneously Avienus) was a Latin writer of the 4th century AD. He was a native of Volsinii in Etruria, from the distinguished family of the Rufii Festi. Avienius is not identical with the historian ...

(4th c. AD)., s.v. ''Salluvii'' and ''Salyes''. The origin of the name remains obscure. The oldest form was most likely ''Salyes'' (/Salwes/), later latinized as ''Salluvii'' (/Salluwii/). According to

Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel (born 5 April 1953) is an Italian philologist, linguist and scholar of Celtic studies. Biography Patrizia de Bernardo was born on 5 April 1953 in Milan, Italy, the daughter of Mario de Bernardo and Adriana Marra. She ...

, ''Salues'' may be a Celtic rendering of an original *''Sḷwes'', meaning 'the own ones'. The name can be compared with the Celtiberian ''Salluienses'' and ''Turma salluitana''. It has also been compared with the Italic personal names ''Salluvius'', ''Sallubius'', ''Salluius'', and ''Sallyius''.

Geography

Territory

The Salyes dwelled in the hinterland of Massalia, between the Massif de l'Étoile and the

Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .Avatici, Tricores and Segobrigii, south of the Dexivates, west of the Tritolli, and east of the Anatilli., Map 15: Arelate-Massalia, Map 16: Col. Forum Iulii-Albingaunum. The Salluvian confederation, which probably emerged in the 2nd century BC, covered a much larger area stretching from the

Rhône The Rhône ( , ; wae, Rotten ; frp, Rôno ; oc, Ròse ) is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and southeastern France before discharging into the Mediterranean Sea. At Ar ...

to the Loup river (just west of the Var), and reaching the Mediterranean sea to the south, between the Arecomici, the Cavari and the later province of

Alpes Maritimae The Alpes Maritimae (; English: 'Maritime Alps') were a small province of the Roman Empire founded in 63 AD by Nero. It was one of the three provinces straddling the Alps between modern France and Italy, along with the Alpes Graiae et Poeninae a ...

Settlements

Their pre-Roman chief town was the

oppidum An ''oppidum'' (plural ''oppida'') is a large fortified Iron Age settlement or town. ''Oppida'' are primarily associated with the Celtic late La Tène culture, emerging during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, spread across Europe, stretchi ...

of Entremont (3 km north of modern Aix-en-Provence). It displays Greek influence in its sculpture, its defences, and the layout of its streets. However, the religious monuments and iconography were overwhelmingly native. The settlement developed relatively late, during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, but it was able to control the east-west routes connecting the Rhône to the Alps, as well as the north-south routes between Massalia and the Durance. Entremont was taken ca. 122 BC by the Roman consul

, who founded a garrison near some warm spring in its vicinity. Refounded by

as a colonia latina, it was made a full colony known as ''Colonia Iulia Augusta Aquis Sextiis'' under

Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...

(27 BC–14 AD). Another settlement was known as Glanon (Latin ''Glanum'', near modern St-Rémy-de-Provence), which means 'the clear/transparent one' in

Gaulish Gaulish was an ancient Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switze ...

; it probably took its name from a nearby river. Located on the great trade route connecting the

Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...

to Italy and occupied since 6th–5th centuries BC, Glanon came under Greek influence from the mid-2nd century BC, which has been interpreted either as a takeover by the Massaliotes or as a Greek cultural imprint on the local Salluvian aristocracy. Glanon may have become the chief town of the Salyes after the sack of Entremont by the Romans ca. 122 BC. Major construction programs were launched between ca. 120 and 90 BC, including sanctuaries, public squares and administrative buildings, presumably for Glanon to assert itself and display its new status. The settlement was abandoned ca. 270 AD after suffering from raids by Germanic tribes, and a new walled town was built in its vicinity at the site of St-Rémy. The oppidum of Baou-Roux was located between Entremont and Massalia.

History

Early history

The Salyes settled in the hinterland of Massalia at the latest in the 6th century BC. According to a legend recounted by

, they fought against the Phocaean settlers at the time of the foundation of Massalia ca. 600, but were defeated by the roving armies of

Bellovesus Bellovesus (Gaulish: 'Worthy of Power') is a legendary Gallic chief of the Bituriges, said to have lived ca. 600 BC. According to a legend recounted by Livy, the king Ambigatus sent his sister's sons Bellovesus and Segovesus in search of new land ...

. Livius, ''Ab Urbe condita'' 5.34–35. During the 5th century BC, the Salyes remained a small tribal group, although they controlled an important trading route through the valley of the Arc. By the time of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), they also controlled areas as far south as the coastal mountains near Massalia. Conflicts between Rome and the Salyes lasted during nearly eighty years from the end of the Second Punic War (201 BC), during which the eastern part of Iberia came under Roman control and Massalia remained a faithful ally of Rome, until the rendition of the Salluvian chief town Entremont ca. 122 BC. Involved in piracy and raids, the Ligurians threatened throughout the 2nd century BC the Massaliotes colonies along the Mediterranean coast, and more generally the trading route between the Iberian Peninsula and Italy, culminating in 154 BC in a Roman military intervention against the Deciates and Oxybii, two Ligurian tribes that were presumably part of the Salluvian confederation.

Roman conquest

In 125 BC, the Salyes waged war on Massalia, leading the

Roman Senate The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...

to send the consul Marcus Fulvius Flaccus to Massalia's assistance. The establishment of a Greek colony at Glanum, on Salluvian territory, may have been the '' casus belli''. Flaccus defeated the Salyes, along with the Vocontii and some other Ligurian tribes presumably part of the Salluvian confederation on the eastern borders of the Massaliote territory, then celebrated his triumph in Rome in 123 BC. Shortly after, another consul,

, sacked their chief town, Entremont, and established near its ruin a Roman garrison post, thereafter to be known as Aquae Sextiae. Sextius also forced the Salyes to withdraw from the coast, and part of their territory was granted to the Massaliotes. During the conflict, the leaders of the Salyes, including their king Toutomotulos (or Teutomalius), fled along with the rest of their armies to their allies the

Allobroges The Allobroges (Gaulish: *''Allobrogis'', 'foreigner, exiled'; grc, Ἀλλοβρίγων, Ἀλλόβριγες) were a Gallic people dwelling in a large territory between the Rhône river and the Alps during the Iron Age and the Roman period. ...

, who refused to hand them over to Rome. A further and larger force, including

war elephants A war elephant was an elephant that was trained and guided by humans for combat. The war elephant's main use was to charge the enemy, break their ranks and instill terror and fear. Elephantry is a term for specific military units using elepha ...

, was sent under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, who defeated the Allobroges at the Battle of Vindalium in 121 BC. In August of the same year, the Roman army, strengthened by the troops of Quintus Fabius Maximus, inflicted a decisive defeat on a massive combined force of Allobroges,

Arveni The Arverni (Gaulish: *''Aruernoi'') were a Gallic people dwelling in the modern Auvergne region during the Iron Age and the Roman period. They were one of the most powerful tribes of ancient Gaul, contesting primacy over the region with the ne ...

and the remaining Salyes at the Battle of the Isère River. Toutomotulus' followers were killed, enslaved, or driven into exile, while Crato, the Salluvian leader of the pro-Graeco-Roman faction, was granted 900 of his fellow citizens from slavery. Between 120 and 117, the territory of the Salyes was incorporated into the

Roman province The Roman provinces (Latin: ''provincia'', pl. ''provinciae'') were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was rule ...

of Gallia Transalpina.

Early Roman period

During the

Cimbrian War The Cimbrian or Cimbric War (113–101 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and the Germanic and Celtic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons, Ambrones and Tigurini, who migrated from the Jutland peninsula into Roman controlled territory ...

, the Battle of Aquae Sextiae took place in their territory in 102 BC. In 90 BC, the consul

Gaius Coelius Caldus Gaius Coelius Caldus was a consul of the Roman Republic in 94 BC alongside his colleague Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. In 107 BC, Coelius Caldus was elected tribune of the plebs and passed a '' lex tabellaria,'' which ordained that in cases of ...

, suppressed a revolt of the Salyes. Another revolt was crushed in 83 BC. After the foundation of a colonia romana at Arelate (

Arles Arles (, , ; oc, label= Provençal, Arle ; Classical la, Arelate) is a coastal city and commune in the South of France, a subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in the former province of ...

) in 46 BC, a large area west of Aquae Sextiae (Aix), including much of the Salluvian lands that had been handed over to Massalia ca. 122 BC, became subject to Arelate.

Culture

Ethnic identity

Strabo implies that the 'Ligurian' (Λίγυας) Salyes who were mentioned by earlier writers occupied the hinterland of Massalia, whereas the later 'Celto-Ligurian' (Κελτολίγυας) Salyes also controlled the area between the

and the

Luberon The Luberon ( or ; Provençal: ''Leberon'' or ''Leberoun'' ) is a massif in central Provence in Southern France, part of the French Prealps. It has a maximum elevation of and an area of about . It is composed of three mountain ranges (from w ...

In fact, the area surrounding the Salluvian chief-town of Entremont (near modern Aix-en-Provence) represented the frontier between the Ligurian tribes dwelling along the Mediterranean coast and the Celtic tribes of the lower Rhône Valley, who displayed a common force against the Roman conqueror at the end of the 2nd century BC. This geo-cultural partition was probably used by the Romans when tracing the border between the civitates of Arelate (Arles) and Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in the 1st century BC. The Celtic names of Salluvian rulers ( Toutomotulos) and towns ( Glanon) suggest that Celtic speakers formed the ruling class of the confederation, which developed links with neighbouring Gallic tribes like the Allobroges, although literary sources point towards a more complex reality, with significant Greek and Ligurian influences. According to historian Guy Barruol, the confederation of the Salyes included at its height the Anatilii, Libicii, Nearchi, Avatici, Dexivates, Segobrigii, Comani, Tricores, Tritolli, Camactulici, Suelteri, Oxybii, Ligauni, Deciates and

Reii The Reii were a Celto-Ligurian tribe dwelling in the modern department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence during the Iron Age and the Roman period. Name The ethnonym ''Reii'' has been interpreted as meaning 'the free ones', stemming from an earlier *'' ...

. The ties that united those various tribes were probably loose, and individual oppida must have retained considerable autonomy, as evidenced by the short lapse of time during which the confederacy dissolved when the Romans destroyed the Salluvian chief town and leaders in 122–121 BC.

Religion

The religion of the Salyes centred on the cult of the ''tête coupée'' ('severed head'). The main shrines were located as Roquepertuse and Entremont. The cult persisted at Entremont until the sack of the settlement by the Romans ca. 122 BC. A Celtic-Ligurian sanctuary dedicated to the god Glan and the ''Matres'' was found at Glanon near a mineral spring.