Roman military personal equipment

Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns, and used in an established manner. These standard patterns and uses were called the ''res militaris'' or ''disciplina''. Its regular practice during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire led to military excellence and victory. The equipment gave the Romans a very distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies, especially so in the case of armour. This does not mean that every Roman soldier had better equipment than the richer men among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, Roman equipment was not of a better quality than that used by the majority of Rome's adversaries. Other historians and writers have stated that the Roman army's need for large quantities of "mass produced" equipment after the Marian Reforms and subsequent civil wars led to a decline in the quality of Roman equipment compared to the earlier Republican era:

Initially, they used weapons based on Greek and Etruscan models. On encountering the Celts, they based new varieties on Celtic equipment. To defeat the Carthaginians, they constructed an entire fleet ''de novo'' based on the Carthaginian model. Once a weapon was adopted, it became standard. The standard weapons varied somewhat during Rome's long history, but the equipment and its use were never individual.

Weapons of a Roman legionary

''Pugio''

A ''pugio'' is a dagger used by Roman soldiers, likely as a sidearm. Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side. It was changed by making the blade a little thinner, about 3 mm, and the handle was also made out of metal. The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade.

Around 50 AD, a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the ''pugio's'' appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 3.5 cm wide), and had little or no waisting, and had reduced or vestigial midribs.

Throughout the period, the outline of the hilt remained approximately the same. It was made with two layers of horn, wood or bone sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with inlaid silver. The hilt was 10–12 cm long overall and the grip was quite narrow; which produced a very secure grip. An expansion or lump in the middle of the handle made the user's grip even more secure.

''Gladius''

''Gladius'' is the general Latin word for "sword". In the Roman Republic, the term ''gladius Hispaniensis'' (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC. It is considered to be the primary weapon used by soldiers in war. Several different better-known designs followed; among collectors and historical reenactors, the two primary kinds of swords are known as the Mainz ''gladius'', and the Pompeii ''gladius'' which follows the Mainz type, which had itself followed the Hispaniensis (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the appearance of the earlier version, the ''gladius Hispaniensis''. The legionaries wore their ''gladii'' on their right hips. In order to craft a sword with the strength and flexibility of the ''gladius,'' blacksmiths used harder steels on the outer layers of the sword while using softer steels in the centre of the blade.

''Spatha''

A '' spatha'' could be any sword (in late Latin), but most often one of the longer swords characteristic of the middle and late Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry started using these longer swords, and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, Roman infantry also switched to longer swords, as well as mostly changing from carrying javelins to carrying spears.

Shorter weapons (short swords and possibly sometimes daggers) were known as '' semispathae'' or half-swords. A large 3rd-century hoard from Künzing included one triangular-bladed short sword and several narrow-bladed short swords (with 23–39 cm blades). Bishop and Coulston suggest that some or all were made from broken ''spathae''.

Spears and javelins (''hastae'')

''Hasta''

''Hasta'' is a Latin word meaning a thrusting spear. ''Hastae'' were carried by early Roman legionaries (''camillan''); in particular, they were carried by and gave their name to those Roman soldiers known as ''hastati''. However, during republican times, the ''hastati'' were re-armed with '' pila'' and ''gladii'', and only the ''triarii'' still used ''hastae''.

A ''hasta'' was about 1.8 metres (six feet) in length. The shaft was generally made from ash while the head was usually of iron, although early republican ''hastae'' also had tips made of bronze.

Javelin

Although Romans often used the word ''pila'' to refer to all thrown javelins, the term ''pilum'' also means specifically the heavy Roman throwing javelin of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed, such as those used by the ''velites'' and the early legions, called ''verutum''. Other types of javelins were adopted by the late Roman army, such as the ''lancea'' and the '' spiculum'', which were heavily influenced by the weapons of Italic warriors.

''Pilum''

The ''pilum'' (plural ''pila'') was a heavy javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally somewhat less than long overall, consisting of a wooden shaft from which projected an iron shank about in diameter and long with a pyramidal head. The iron shank was socketed or, more usually, widened to a flat tang. A ''pilum'' usually weighed between , with the versions produced during the empire era being somewhat lighter.

''Pila'' were designed to penetrate both shield and armour, wounding the wearer; but, if they simply stuck in a shield, they could not easily be removed. Some believed that the iron shank would bend upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and also preventing the ''pilum'' from being immediately re-used. Some versions of the shaft may have fallen off on impact, leaving the enemy with a bent shank in their shield. However, recent evidence suggests that many types of ''pilum'' did not bend at all, but reduced the effectiveness of enemy shields by simply getting stuck due to the shape of its larger head and thin shank. In fact, there were many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the ''pilum'' more suitable as a close quarters melee weapon, while also rendering it usable by enemy soldiers.'''' Newer work by M. C. Bishop states that the ''pila'' are "unlikely to bend under their own weight when thrown and striking a target or ground" - rather, it is human intervention .g., improper removal of a ''pilum'' stuck in a targetthat is responsible in some way, and that Caesar's writings should be interpreted as the ''pilum'' bent when soldiers tried to remove them. A sturdy ''pilum'' that does not bend upon impact would be in line with the numerous historical Roman writings that state the ''pilum'' was often used as a weapon in melee combat:
For example, in "The Gallic Wars" Caesar writes that at Alesia his troops used the ''pila'' as spears or pikes. In the "Life of Pompey" and "Life of Antony", Plutarch describes Caesar's men at Pharsalus jabbing upwards at the faces of Pompey's cavalry with their javelins and Marc Antony's men stabbing at Parthian cavalry with theirs. In Arrian in Array against the Alans, Arrian writes that the first four ranks of the formation should use their ''pila'' like spearmen, while the rest should use them like javelins.

Projectile weapons

Bow

The ''sagittarius'' was armed with a composite bow (''arcus''), shooting an arrow (''sagitta''), made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with hide glue. However, Vegetius recommended training recruits "''arcubus ligneis''", with wooden bows. The reinforcing laths for the composite bows were found throughout the empire, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.

Crossbow

The ''cheiroballistra'', also known as the ''manuballista'', was a crossbow that was occasionally used by the Romans. The ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate. Roman authors like Vegetius (fl. 4th century) note repeatedly the use of arrow shooting weapons such as ''arcuballista'' and ''manuballista'' respectively ''cheiroballista''. While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there is disagreement whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent Xanten find.

The Roman commander Arrian records in his ''Tactica'' Roman cavalry training for shooting some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback.
Sculptural reliefs from Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. These are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow.Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines
Arcuballista, Manuballista
/ref>

''Plumbatae''

Late infantrymen often carried a half-dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called ''plumbatae'' (from ''plumbum'', meaning "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30 m, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.

Entrenching tools

Ancient writers, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of spades and other digging implements as important tools of war. A Roman legion when on the march would dig a ditch and rampart around their camps every night where established camps were not available. They were also useful as improvised weapons.

''Dolabra''

The ''dolabra'' was an Italian pickaxe used as an entrenching tool.

''Ligo''

''Falx''

The ''falx'' was a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge such as a sickle or a scythe. It was used to clear overgrowth.

Torso armour

Not all troops wore torso armour. Light infantry, especially in the early republic, wore little or no armour. This was both to allow swifter movement for light troops and also as a matter of cost.

Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types. Some wore mail shirts, while others wore scale armour or '' lorica segmentata'' or laminated-strip cuirass. This last type was a complex piece of armour which in certain circumstances provided superior protection to the other types of Roman armour, mail armour ('' lorica hamata'') and scale armour ('' lorica squamata''). The testing of modern replicas has demonstrated that this kind of armour was impenetrable to most direct hits and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable without padding: re-enactors have confirmed that wearing a padded undergarment known as a ''subarmalis'' relieves the wearer from bruising both from prolonged wear and from shock produced by weapon blows against the armour. It was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain. In the 3rd century, the ''segmentata'' appears to have been dropped and troops are depicted wearing mail armour (mainly) or scale, the standard armour of the 2nd-century ''auxilia''. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the ''Notitia'' show that the army's ''fabricae'' (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts. Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the ''principate'', together with traditional '' pteruges''.

''Lorica segmentata''

''Lorica segmentata'' was a type of body armour primarily used in the early Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The armour itself consisted of broad ferrous strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back by means of brass hooks, which were joined by leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional strips ('shoulder guards') and breast- and backplates. The form of the armour allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections. During the time of its use, it was modified several times, the currently recognised types being the Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50), Corbridge (c. 40 to 120), and Newstead (c. 120 to possibly the early 4th century) types. There is also a little-known fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Julia in Romania, where there appears to have been a hybrid form, the shoulders being protected by scale armour and the torso hoops being fewer in number and deeper.

The earliest evidence of the ''lorica segmentata'' being worn is around 9 BC (Dangstetten), and the armour was evidently quite common in service until the 2nd century AD, judging from the number of finds throughout this period (over 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain). However, even during the 2nd century AD, the ''segmentata'' never replaced the ''lorica hamata'' - thus the ''hamata'' mail was still standard issue for both heavy infantry and auxiliaries alike. The last recorded use of this armour seems to have been for the last quarter of the 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain).

There are two opinions as to who used this form of armour. One is that only legionaries (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and '' praetorians'' were issued ''lorica segmentata''. Auxiliary forces would more commonly wear the ''lorica hamata'', or ''lorica squamata''. The second viewpoint is that both legionaries and auxiliary soldiers used the ''segmentata'' armour and this latter view is supported, to some degree, by archaeological findings. The ''lorica segmentata'' offered greater protection than the ''lorica hamata'' for about half of the weight, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The expenses attributed to the ''segmentata'' may account for the reversion to ring-mail after the 3rd to 4th century. Alternatively, all forms of armour may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry waned in favour of the speed of mounted troops.

''Lorica hamata''

''Lorica hamata'' was a type of mail armour used during the Roman Republic continuing throughout the Roman Empire as a standard-issue armour for the primary heavy infantry legionaries and secondary troops (''auxilia''). They were mostly manufactured out of iron, though sometimes bronze was used instead. The rings were linked together, alternating closed washer-like rings with riveted rings. This produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of between 5 and 7 mm, and an outside diameter of 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the ''lorica hamata'' had flaps that were similar to those of the Greek ''linothorax''; they ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by brass or iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one ''lorica hamata''.

Although labour-intensive to manufacture, it is thought that, with good maintenance, they could be continually used for several decades. Its utility was such that the later appearance of the famous ''lorica segmentata''—which afforded greater protection for a third of the weight—never led to the disappearance of the ubiquitous mail, and, in fact, the army of the late empire reverted to the ''lorica hamata'' once the ''segmentata'' had fallen out of fashion.

''Lorica squamata''

''Lorica squamata'' was a type of scale armour used during the Roman Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians, centurions, cavalry troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular legionaries as well. A shirt of scale armour was shaped in the same way as a ''lorica hamata'', mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.

The individual scales (''squamae'') were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing bronze scales that were alternately tinned and plain. The metal was generally not very thick, 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in) perhaps being a common range. Since the scales overlapped in every direction, however, the multiple layers gave good protection. The size ranged from as small as 6 mm (0.25 in) wide by 1.2 cm tall up to about 5 cm (2 in) wide by 8 cm (3 in) tall, with the most common sizes being roughly 1.25 by 2.5 cm (0.5 by 1 in). Many had rounded bottoms, while others were pointed or had flat bottoms with the corners clipped off at an angle. The scales could be flat, slightly domed, or have a raised midrib or edge. All the scales in a shirt were generally of the same size; however, scales from different shirts varied significantly.

The scales were wired together in horizontal rows that were then laced or sewn to the backing. Therefore, each scale had from four to 12 holes: two or more at each side for wiring to the next in the row, one or two at the top for fastening to the backing, and sometimes one or two at the bottom to secure the scales to the backing or to each other.

It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties. Much has been written about scale armour's supposed vulnerability to an upward thrust, but this is probably exaggerated.

No examples of an entire ''lorica squamata'' have been found, but there have been several archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts and individual scales are quite common finds—even in non-military contexts.

'' Lorica musculata''

Shields

''Scutum''

''Parma''

The ''parma'' was a circular shield, three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but was strongly made and regarded as effective protection. Its strength came from its design of gluing multiple layers of wood together while stretching leather across it to eliminate the shields' vulnerability to water. This may have been due to the use of iron in its frame. It had a handle and a shield boss (''umbo'').

The ''parma'' was used in the Roman army of the mid-Republic, by the lowest class division of the army — the ''velites''. The ''velites equipment consisted of a ''parma'', javelin, sword and helmet. Later, the ''parma'' was replaced by the ''scutum''.

''Caetra''

A light shield of wood and leather, the name from Greek (καίτρεα, ''Hesych''.). Used by tribesmen from Hispania, Mauretania, and Britannia.

Helmets

Roman helmets, ''galea'' or ''cassis'', varied greatly in form. One of the earliest types was the Montefortino helmet used by the Republic armies up to the 1st century BC. This was replaced directly by the Coolus helmet, which "raised the neck peak to eye level and set a sturdy frontal peak to the brow of the helmet".Santosuosso, A., ''Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire'', Westview, 2001, p.131 The Galea was used from the late 1st century BC to the late 2nd century AD and it drew influence from the Gallic tribes to the north, hence its name. Roman helmets usually featured a bowl protecting the head, an extension at the back with a neck guard, a ridge above the forehead for additional impact protection and decoration, and hinged cheek guards which left the ears exposed for better hearing in the battlefield. They were eventually replaced by the ridge helmet and the Spangenhelm during the late imperial period.

Limb armour

''Manica''

From early imperial times to after the fall of the Western Empire, some troops wore segmented armour on one or both arms. The ''manica'' was first used by gladiators and it was made either from padded cloth or overlapping metal sheets. Roman legionaries are depicted wearing ''manicas'' in engravings of the Dacian Wars.

Greave

Greaves, sheet metal protecting the legs, were widely used in the early republic, and by some troops in the imperial army. Early Roman legionaries would wear a single greave on the left leg which was more exposed under the shield, as it was fashion in Italic cultures.

Clothing

*Tunic: a basic garment worn under the armour by all soldiers in the republic and early empire. Normally made of wool. Tunics originally consisted simply of a piece of rectangular cloth sewed to an identical piece, with holes for the arms and head left unsewn. Later, it became fashionable for tunics to be produced with sleeves, and worn with ''braccae''.
*''Subarmalis'': A padded jacket made out of linen or leather, worn underneath armours such as the ''lorica hamata'' or ''lorica segmentata'' to provide impact protection as well as better weight distribution and comfort.
*'' Focale'': a scarf worn by legionaries to protect the neck from chafing caused by constant contact with the soldier's armour (typically ''lorica hamata'' or ''lorica segmentata'') and helmet
* ''Balteus'': a sword belt
*''Cingulum militare'': a type of decorated belt denoting rank
*'' Braccae'': woollen trousers
*'' Subligaria'': underpants. Their existence was confirmed by one of the Vindolanda tablets.
*Cloak: two types of cloaks were used, the '' sagum'' and the '' paenula''. Both were made from wool, which insulated and also contained natural oil to repel water. They were fastened with a ''fibula''. The ''paenula'' was hooded in colder climates. Since every common soldier slept in the open, it was important that he have a warm full-length wrap, but necessary that he carry it with him each day regardless of his activities. This was accomplished by a cloak of more than body length, double-folded so that it did not fall beneath the knees when worn. An excellent illustration of this is the statue of Caesar Augustus atop the theater in the Roman city of Orange, in what is now France.
*'' Caligae'': military boots worn by legionaries and auxiliaries throughout the history of the Roman Republic and Empire. The boots were made from leather and laced up the centre of the foot and onto the top of the ankle. Iron hobnails were hammered into the sole for added strength. Similar to the modern cleat.
*'' Pteruges'': leather or fabric strips that formed a skirt or sleeves to protect limbs while maintaining mobility and ventilation. They were usually part of a padding coat worn under the armour, such as the ''subarmalis''. ''Pteruges'' could be fitted with small metal studs and plates to provide additional protection.

''Sarcina''

A military pack carried by legionaries. The pack included a number of items suspended from a '' furca'' or carrying pole. Items carried in the pack included:

*'' Loculus'': a leather satchel
*Waterskin: Roman camps would typically be built near water sources, but each soldier would have to carry his water for the day's march in a waterskin.
*Food: each legionary would carry some of his food. Although a Roman army on the move would typically have a baggage train of mules or similar to carry supplies such as food, after the Marian reforms legionaries were required to carry about 15 days worth of basic food supplies with them.
*Cooking equipment: including a '' patera'', cooking pot and skewer.
*Entrenching tools: Carried by legionaries to construct fortifications and dig latrines etc. Each legionary would typically carry either a shovel (''batillum'') or ''dolabra'' (mattock) for digging, a turf cutting tool or a wicker basket for hauling earth.
*'' Sudis'': stakes for construction of camps

Other

Ballista

The ballista was a powerful catapult, consisting of a beam with a frame at the end, mounting two rigid arms powered by torsion in bundles of sinew at each side, which would pull a bowstring between them propelling the projectile. It launched heavy darts called bolts, or spherical stone projectiles of various sizes. Ballistas were fit with grappling hooks to seize enemy vessels during the Roman civil wars. The Romans would develop an improved version with inward facing arms in the 3rd century, the remains of such were found in the town of Hatra in Iraq.

Scorpio

The scorpio was a torsion-powered catapult-type weapon, similar to a smaller ballista, which fired bolts capable of piercing enemy shields and armour. The Roman army supplied 60 to each legion and they were used both offensively during sieges and defensively as part of the Romans' field camp defenses. They were also mounted on ships and carriages to provide support to infantry.

Onager

The onager was a torsion-powered siege engine in which a sinew or horse hair spring mounted on a wooden frame swung an arm vertically against a stop, hurling projectiles in a high arc. It launched stones from a cup or sling, and it was named after a species of Asiatic ass due to its kick.

''Buccina''

A brass instrument used in the ancient Roman army. It was originally designed as a tube measuring some 11 to 12 feet in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube was bent around upon itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad ''C'' and was strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasped while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the curves over his head or shoulder.

The ''buccina'' was used for the announcement of night watches and various other announcements in the camp.

The instrument is the ancestor of both the trumpet and the trombone. The German word for trombone, ''Posaune'', is derived from ''buccina''.

''Tribulus''

A ''tribulus'' (caltrop) was a weapon made up of four sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always pointed upward from a stable base (for example, a tetrahedron). Caltrops served to slow down the advance of horses, war elephants, and human troops. It was said to be particularly effective against the soft feet of camels.

The late-Roman writer Vegetius, in his work ''De Re Militari'', wrote:

Miscellaneous

* Roman military standards
* Vexillum
* Vine staff

See also

*Military of ancient Rome
*Technological history of the Roman military

Notes

References

* Ammianus Marcellinus,
Roman History
' (late 4th century)
*
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External links

Roman military equipment in the British Museum, Hunterian Museum and National Museum of Scotland

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roman Military Personal Equipment
Ancient Roman military equipment