Renga

''Renga'' (, ''linked verse'') is a genre of Japanese collaborative poetry in which alternating stanzas, or ''ku (''句), of 5-7-5 and 7-7 mora (sound units, not to be confused with syllables) per line are linked in succession by multiple poets. Known as ''tsukuba no michi'' ( ''The Way of Tsukuba'') after the famous Tsukuba Mountain in the Kantō region, the form of poetry is said to have originated in a two-verse poetry exchange by Yamato Takeru and later gave birth to the genres '' haikai'' () and haiku ().Kaneko, Kinjirō. ''Rengashū, Haikaishū''. Tōkyō: Shōgakkan, 2001. Print.

The genre was elevated to a literary art by Nijō Yoshimoto (, 1320–1388), who compiled the first imperial renga anthology Tsukubashū () in 1356. The most famous renga master was Sōgi (, 1421–1502), and Matsuo Bashō (, 1644–1694) after him became the most famous ''haikai'' master. Renga sequences were typically composed live during gatherings of poets, transcribed oral sessions known as ''rengakai'' (), but could also be composed by single poets as mainly textual works.

History

Classical and early medieval

The "origin" of ''renga'' is traditionally associated with a passage in the ''Kojiki'', wherein Prince Yamato Takeru speaks to an old man and inquires, by way of a '' katauta'' poem, how many nights he had slept since passing Nabari and Tsukuba, to which the old man responds by way of another ''kata-uta'' poem, which combined form a single '' sedōka''. Later medieval ''renga'' poets, out of reverence for this exchange, would refer to their art as "the Way of Tsukuba", and the first imperial ''renga'' anthology, the '' Tsukubashū'', alludes to it in the title.

The earliest extant renga appears in the Manyoshu (), with its 5-7-5 mora ''jōku'' ( first stanza) written by Ōtomo no Yakamochi (, 718-785) and its 7-7 mora ''geku'' ( last stanza) written by a Buddhist nun ( ''ama'') in an exchange of poems. This two-stanza form is now called ''tanrenga'' () to differentiate it from ''chōrenga'' (), the ''hyakuin'' renga ( 100-stanza ''renga'') to which the general term renga refers.

The ''tanrenga'' form was popular from the beginning of the Heian Period until the end of cloistered rule ( ''insei'') and would sometimes appear in imperial anthologies of waka, which it closely resembled at a glance. It was during the ''insei'' period that the form began take shape and evolve into ''chōrenga''. The Kin'yōshū () was the first imperial waka anthology to include an explicit section on renga thanks to its compiler Minamoto no Toshiyori (, also Minamoto no Shunrai; ~1055–1129), who was the first to write about renga theory in his poetic treatise ''Toshiyori Zuinō'' ().

As ''tanrenga'' gained traction and began to feature more intricate and technically complex links between its two stanzas, the genre gained popularity as a game, and events were held to create the best links. Participants began going beyond the original two stanzas of ''tanrenga'', leading to the creation of a ''chōrenga'' form more formal than games like '' iroha'' renga, in which 47 stanzas beginning with each of the 47 characters of the ''hiragana'' writing system were linked. Around the same time, a more straightforward style of linking developed, which also helped to spur the lengthening of the form. Eventually, this 100-stanza renga, which alternated 5-7-5 and 7-7 mora verses (known as ''tanku'' and ''chōku'' respectively), became the basis for what we know as renga today.

The vocabulary of ''hyakuin'' renga was largely limited to the that had been established in the '' Kokinshū.'' At this time, poets considered the use of ''utakotoba'' as the essence of creating a perfect ''waka'', and use of any other words was considered to be unbecoming of true poetry.

A comparable, though less evolved, tradition of 'linked verse' (''lián jù'' —the same characters as ' renku')—evolved in Qin-dynasty China, and this Chinese form may have influenced Japanese ''renga'' during its formative period. However, there are major differences between the two, the Chinese having a unity of subject and a general lightheartedness of tone, neither of which characteristic is present in Japanese ''renga''; furthermore, the history of Japanese poetry shows ''renga'' as an apparently natural evolution.

Around the time of the Shin Kokin Wakashū (, 1205) during the rule of Emperor Go-Tōba, ''hyakuin'' renga developed enough to gain its first real independence from waka. In the courts, ''ushin mushin'' () renga sessions were held in which poets and non-poets were divided into ''ushin'' and ''mushin'' respectively to link stanzas. The ''ushin'' side would offer orthodox elegant stanzas while the ''mushin'' side would offer comical or aesthetically “wilder” stanzas ( ''kyōka''), and while submissions from both sides were accepted as appropriate links, the ''ushin'' were favored. While this practice ended with the Jōkyū Disturbance (1221), it served as an important foundation for the further development of ''hyakuin'' renga, which placed more emphasis on the skill of poets, and stanzas by many major renga participants of the Go-Tōba court such as Fujiwara no Teika (1162–1241) were later anthologized in the Tsukubashū.

After the Jōkyū Disturbance, renga moved out of the courts. In the popular ''hana no moto'' renga ( ”renga under flowers”), commoners would gather for renga sessions under the flowering trees in spring, a tradition that is estimated to have been around for about 100 years by the start of the Nanboku-chō Period. Some of the later resulting works were anthologized in the Tsukubashū. ''Jige'' renga ( “underground renga”) was born out of ''hana no moto'' renga and was pervasive through the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281) and after. The ''jige'' renga poets were led by Priest Zen’a (, ??–1312), who built upon the rules of ''hana no moto'' renga but also deviated from them, creating new versions of forms such as 1-day 1000-stanza renga ( ''ichi nichi senku renga'')—telling of the genre's wide scale. Renga continued to flourish in the courts as well, and the era saw splendid renga gatherings of even 10,000 verses a day, as well as prominent women poets such as the Buddhist nun Nijō ( ''nijō no ama'').

It was during the Kamakura Period that the rules ( ''shikimoku'') of renga began to develop. At the time, one of the most important rules was ''fushimono'' (), titular prompts that had to be followed by every stanza in the entire sequence. For instance, a white-black ''fushimono'' would call for each verse to alternate between including a white object and a black object. Others ''fushimono'' might be more linguistic, such as requiring odd verses to include three-mora phrases that became a different word upon removal of the middle mora, and even verses to include four-mora phrases that became a different word upon removal of the first and last mora.

Late medieval

In the Nanboku-cho Period, renga began to take form and establish itself as a literary genre, largely owing to the efforts of Nijō Yoshimoto (, 1320–1388), who compiled the first imperial renga anthology Tsukubashū () in 1356. As reflected in the collection, aesthetic and linguistically polished ''hyakuin'' renga that embodied the spirit of the renga session became the foundation for the genre as it is known today.

Yoshimoto was a disciple of Gusai (, also Kyūsei or Kyūzei; 1281–1376), who was taught by Zen’a. Gusai, a commoner priest, was a leading ''jige'' renga poet and key collaborator in the compilation of the Tsukubashū. Yoshimoto was an aristocrat who served in the Northern Court of the Ashikaga Shogunate. He was originally a waka poet, and his relationship with Gusai, who also had training in courtly literature, brought together common and courtly renga traditions. Yoshimoto was the first to write extensively on renga theory, creating many works laying out the genre’s structure, aesthetic standards, ''shikimoku'', and more. One major change he made was to the ''fushimono'', which remained part of the title but now only applied to the first verse rather than the whole sequence. Other important rules delineated the maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear in a row, and maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear across the whole sequence. Many of his aesthetic treatises became important pedagogical artifacts for future renga poets. Through his theoretical work and compilation of the Tsukubashū, Yoshimoto elevated renga to the status of an independent literary genre, setting a crucial foundation for its golden age.

The golden age of renga is widely regarded as the Muromachi Period, during which many of the greatest renga masters were active. The era is epitomized by the poet Sōgi (, 1421–1502) and his compilation of the renga anthology Shintsukubashū (, lit. “New Tsukubashū).

Prior to Sōgi, Ichijō Kaneyoshi (, also Kanera; 1402–1481) aimed to succeed his grandfather Nijō Yoshimoto with his compilation of the Aratamashū (), which he worked on with the priest Sōzei (). However, the anthology was lost and the creation of the next major anthology was completed instead by Sozei’s disciple, Sōgi. Sōzei was one of the “seven sages,” a group of poets all active around that time. They consisted of Priest Chiun (, 1448–1471), Priest Sōzei (, ??–1455), High Priest Gyōjo (, 1405–1469), Priest Nōa (, 1397–1471), Clergyman Shinkei (; 1406–1475), High Priest Senjun ( 1411–1476), and Priest Sōi (, 1418–1485). Their work was later anthologized by Sōgi in his anthology Chikurinshō (), for which Kaneyoshi wrote the preface.

Sōgi, a commoner priest, studied literature extensively, learning renga from Sōzei and classical literature from Kaneyoshi among others. He spent much time travelling the country as a professional renga poet despite the tumultuous political context of his era. His works often feature the relationship between humans and nature. His anthology Shintsukubashū became the successor to the Tsukubashū, and he also composed many other major works, the two most famous being “Three Poets at Minase” ( ''Minase Sangin Hyakuin'') and “Three Poets at Yuyama” ( ''Yuyama Sangin Hyakuin''). Both sequences were composed by Sōgi and two of his disciples, the priests Shōhaku (, 1143–1527) and Sōchō (, 1448–1532), in 1488 and 1491 respectively. The former was created as an offering for Emperor Go-Toba, the compiler of the Shinkokinshū, making it a formal piece with ceremonial grandeur. “Three Poets at Yuyama,” on the other hand, was created in a more relaxed setting and enjoyed greater popularity in its time. It did, however, maintain also many conventions of renga despite its greater flexibility. The two are now considered the most canonical renga sequences and were widely used pedagogically as standards for the genre.

Sōgi’s death in 1502 was followed by a peak in popularity and then decline of renga as the new genre ''haikai'' developed. Sōgi’s lineage of disciples continued the renga tradition that ended with the death of Jōha (, 1524–1602), who is considered to be the final major renga poet.

One of Sōgi’s final disciples and also a previous disciple of Sōchō, the priest Sōseki (, 1474–1533), continued the Sōgi line of disciples after the poet’s death. Sōhoku (, ??–1545) was a disciple of Sōchō and Sōseki, and after their deaths rose to the forefront of the renga world. Like his predecessors, he spent much of his time travelling and wrote many works on renga theory in addition to his compositions. His son Sōyō (, 1526–1563) was raised renga poet as well and continued the tradition of travel. He became the top renga master after the death of all of the previous generation. His own death marked the end of the Sōgi tradition of renga, and his contemporary Satomura Jōha rose by default to the top position in the renga world.

Jōha came from another branch of the Sōgi lineage; he studied under Sōseki’s disciple Shūkei (, 1470–1544), and then Shūkei’s disciple Satomura Shōkyū (, 1511–1552) after Shūkei’s death, taking Satomura as his family name. Jōha was heavily involved with major political figures of his time, establishing connections with important people from various factions. His renga moved toward easy understandability and away from the depth and aesthetic standards of the previous tradition. After his death, renga’s period of widespread popularity ended as it was overtaken by haikai, its child genre. Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) became the most prominent haikai poet and was later also famous for his haiku.

''Renga'' was a popular form of poetry even in the confusion of Azuchi–Momoyama period. Yet by the end of this era, the ''shikimoku'' had become so complicated and systematic that they stifled the active imagination that had been a part of the ''renga''s appeal. During the medieval and Edo periods, ''renga'' was a part of the cultural knowledge required for high society.

Edo–Meiji

In the Edo period, as more and more ordinary citizens became familiar with ''renga'', ''shikimoku'' were greatly simplified. The 36-verse Kasen became the most popular form of ''renga'', and commonly spoken words as well as slang and Chinese words were allowed. With this relaxation of the rules, ''renga'' were able to express broader humor and wit. This style of ''renga'' came to be called '' haikai no renga'' ("comical linked verse") or simply '' haikai'', and Matsuo Bashō is known as the greatest '' haikai'' poet.

The most favored form of ''renga'' in the Edo period was the , a chain consisting of 36 verses. As a rule, ''kasen'' must refer to flowers (usually cherry blossoms) twice, and three times to the moon. These references are termed and .

The first stanza of the ''renga'' chain, the '' hokku'', is the forebear of the modern haiku. The stand-alone hokku was renamed haiku in the Meiji period by the great Japanese poet and critic Masaoka Shiki. Shiki proposed ''haiku'' as an abbreviation of the phrase "''haikai no ku''" meaning a verse of '' haikai''.

For almost 700 years, ''renga'' was a popular form of poetry, but its popularity was greatly diminished in the Meiji period. Masaoka Shiki, although himself a participant in several ''renga'', claimed that . The ''rengas appeal of working as a group to make a complete work was not compatible with the European style of poetry gaining popularity in Japan, where a single poet writes the entire poem.

Structure of and conventions of ''Hyakuin'' renga

The ''hyakuin'' renga sequence begins with the ''hokku'' (), a 5-7-5 mora verse which was the origin of the later genre ''haiku''. Unlike the following verses, the ''hokku'' in a renga session was expected to reflect the reality of the ''ba''—its geographical location, season, etc.—and was also the only verse expected to be able to stand independently as a poem. The composition of the ''hokku'' was usually left to a skilled poet, and professional renga poets would sometimes be commissioned to write them during their travels. Often, the ''hokku'' would be written by the guest of the session, with the host responding with the second verse.Horton, H. Mack. “Renga Unbound: Performative Aspects of Japanese Linked Verse.” ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'', vol. 53, no. 2, Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1993, pp. 443–512. JSTOR, ''JSTOR'', doi:10.2307/2719455. Two technical conventions that carried over to haiku were the seasonal word ''kigo'' () and a “cutting word” ''kireji'' (). The ''hokku'' was followed by the ''wakiku'' (), ''daisan'' (), the names for the second and third verses respectively. Including these two, the rest of the linked verses were called ''tsukeku'' (), and verses 4-99 together were called the ''hiraku'' (). The final verse was called the ''ageku'' ().

During a renga session, the verses were transcribed onto a paper known as ''kaishi'' (), using four sheets, or eight sides of paper, total. The first side ( ''sho-ori'') and last side ( ''nagori-no-ori'') contained 8 verses each, and the rest of the sides contained 14 verses each. There were various structural rules based on the paper layout, the most important being the “four blossoms eight moons” rule (). Each sheet should include one verse that used the word ''hana'' (), or blossoms, and each side should include one verse that used the word ''tsuki'' () to mean moon specifically (as opposed to “month”). Sometimes the “moon” on the last page would be omitted, leaving seven “moons,” making that half of rule more flexible than the number of “blossom” verses, which were considered more important and were usually composed by senior poets or those of higher social status.

In addition to the “four blossoms eight moons” rule, which served as a major structural pillar for the sequence, there were many other rules regarding topics or lexical categories and their usage in the context of the whole verse. As the vocabulary of renga largely followed the lexicon of ''waka'', which used a limited number of words, there was a complex but clear system of what words fell under what category. For instance, ''ikkumono'' () was a category of specific phrases could only be used once in the entire sequence due to their particularly strong impression, or because they were considered unrefined. Some of the most important topics were the four seasons, love, reminiscence ( ''jukkai''; included topics like grief and nostalgia), travel, and Buddhism. Topics like these had to follow the rules of ''rinne'' ( recurrence), which dictated the maximum and/or minimum number of verses each topic could appear in a row. For instance, spring and autumn verses must repeat for at least three and at most five verses in a row. Love originally followed the same rule, but by Sōgi’s era the minimum had dropped to two, and a single verse was allowed by the Edo Period. Summer, winter, travel, and Buddhism, among many others, could repeat for a maximum of three verses and no minimum, as could reminiscence—here, the subtopic of transiency fell under reminiscence, although it did not for other rules.

There were also many conventions governing the flow of movement throughout the sequence. The term for the proper flow of rhythm, which was also used in other art forms such as Noh theatre, was ''jōhakyū'' (), or “prelude, development, presto” in the manner of music. The ''jō'' contained the first ten verses, which should be graceful, smooth, and subtle. The ''ha'' encompassed the 11th to 78th verses, which should be dynamic and exciting. The last 22 verses were the ''kyū'', which should move quickly and easily, particularly the final 8 verses for a clean-cut finish. Another convention regarding the flow of the sequence was the alternation of ''mon'' ( “pattern”) and ''ji'' ( “background”) verses. ''Mon'' verses contained more striking imagery that drew the audience’s attention, while ''ji'' verses were relatively plainer and inconspicuous verses serving to bring out the vividness of the ''mon''. A good flow required skilled but subtle control of the pattern of the two types of verses.

Because in renga each verse is only related to its immediate neighbors, the sequence as a whole does not have very much semantic, stylistic, or thematic unity. Thus, what held the sequence together was the link between each verse, or ''tsukeai'' (). The most important rule of linking was that links could only exist between two adjacent verses, i.e. a verse could not be connected with any verses aside from the one it was being linked to. There was a wide range of types of links, from linguistic to semantic and direct to indirect; Nijō Yoshimoto listed thirteen types in his poetic treatise on renga, ''Renri Hishō'' ().

The renga session

Renga was typically composed in sessions attended by a group of poets known as the ''renju'' (, also ''renjū'')—usually 7-8, though the number could range widely—, a scribe ( ''shuhitsu''), and a master ( ''sōshō''). The setting of the session was called the ''ba'' (), and was an integral part of the poetic sequence, providing aesthetic inspiration and often serving as the basis for the ''hokku''. These sessions could take the form of more literary pedagogical events or more informal competitions that drew crowds of spectators.

The scribe sat at a low writing desk ( ''bundai''), with the poets sitting facing the desk and the master beside it. The role of the scribe was not only to transcribe the renga sequence, but also to act as an enforcer of the rules of the genre. Once a poet was ready to offer a verse, he would make eye contact with and recite it to the scribe, who would then check to make sure that there were no infractions and write it down. The scribe was usually a younger, aspiring renga poet who would be able to gather experience and recognition through the session. The job required a remarkable memory, as he was required to not only remember all of the rules, but also to instantly recall all the previous verses in order to check the newest verse against them without wasting time looking through the transcription. In addition, the scribe needed both poetic and social skills in order to maintain the pace of the session. He had to decide when to enforce the rules and when to let infractions go for artistic or social reasons. Because renga sessions often gathered people from different social statuses, the scribe needed to facilitate the social dynamic and reject or accommodate verses without offending those of higher standing.

Unlike the scribe, the master was mainly in charge of the aesthetic progression of the sequence, maintaining the ''jōhakyū'' tempo, ''ji'' and ''mon'' pattern, the ''yukiyō'', and other aspects of the flow by both judging verses and offering his own. He served as the senior poet who contributed many verses and helped other poets refine theirs, exercising a certain amount of authority over their compositions. Professional renga poets ( ''rengashi'') such as Sōgi and his disciples would often be in high demand as masters during their travels.

At the start of the session, the scribe would receive the hokku and write it alongside the ''fushimono'' to its right. Then he would continue to receive verses; a poet would recite his verse, the scribe would recite it back, and each verse approved by the master and him would be written and recited again. Once the scribe wrote the final verse, he would count the number of verses each participant had contributed and write the tallies at the end of the last page. Finally, he bound the four pages with a string.

Many treatises and handbooks delineated the proper etiquette and conventions for renga sessions, covering everything from behavior and preparation of individual poets to the setup and dynamic of the ''ba''. There was some variation between time periods and treatises regarding the ideal conditions of a renga session, and there were no doubt many amateur sessions across the country that did not adhere to the strict rules. As a whole, however, the renga session and its conventions played a crucial role in renga composition, and many extant renga today are products of those sessions where sequences were carefully recorded and preserved.

Outside Japan

An early attempt at ''renga'' in English appeared in 1968 in ''Haiku Magazine,''Van den Heuvel, Cor. ''The Haiku Anthology,'' 2nd edition. Simon & Schuster, 1986. p12 and the same magazine published an issue in 1976 devoted to ''renga'' and haibun. Since then, many English-language haiku journals have published renga, renku, and other linked poetry.

Formats

Here follows a list of the most common formats in which ''renga'' have been written, both ''ushin'' (orthodox) ''renga'', and ''mushin'' ( renku)

Terminology

* : The first stanza of ''renga'' with a 5-7-5 mora (sound unit) count. This stanza should be created by a special guest when present, and is considered a part of the greeting in a ''renga'' gathering. It must include a , as well as a . The kigo usually references the season the ''renga'' was created in. Hokku, removed from the context of ''renga'', eventually became the haiku poetry form.
* : The second stanza of a ''renga'' with a 7-7 mora count. The person who helped to organize the gathering is honored with creating it.

* : The third stanza of a ''renga'' with a 5-7-5 mora count. It must end with the ''-te'' form of a verb to allow the next poet greater freedom in creating the stanza.
* : Refers to all verses other than the ''hokku'', ''waki'', ''daisan'', and ''ageku''.
* : The last stanza of a ''renga''. Care should be taken to wrap up the ''renga''.
* : A note made after the ''ageku'' to indicate how many ''ku'' each poet read.
* : To hold a ''renga'' gathering. May also be called .
* : To start with the ''hokku'' of a famous poet such as Bashō and make a new ''waki'' verse to follow on from there.
* : May also be called or . Refers to the mixing and matching of unlikely word combinations to spur imagination or evoke an image. One of the interesting features of ''renga''.
* : The verse in which ''tsukeai'' happens.
* : The verse before the ''maeku''.
* : A set of rules to lay out the stylistic requirements for change throughout the poem and to prevent a ''renga'' from falling apart.
* : Modern ''renga'' in Bashō's style.
* : Literally, "the number of verses". When the theme of a section is a popular topic such as "Love", "Spring", or "Fall", the ''renga'' must continue on that theme for at least two verses but not more than five verses. This theme may then be dropped with one verse on any other topic.
* : A rule to prevent loops repeating the same image or a similar verse.
* : The name for a loop where the same theme, image, or word is repeated. Term taken from Buddhism.
* : A type of loop where the ''uchikoshi'' and ''tsukeku'' have an identical image or theme.
* : A stanza prepared beforehand. Should be avoided as stanzas should be created on the spot.
* : To make two stanzas in a row. Happens frequently when the ''dashigachi'' rule is used. Should be avoided to let others join.
* : A rule to use the stanza of the first poet to create one.
* : A rule whereby each poet takes a turn to make a stanza.
* : The members of a ''renga'' or ''haikai'' gathering. The members of a ''renga'' gathering are also called .
* : Literally, "one seating". Describes the group when the ''renju'' are seated and the ''renga'' has begun.
* : May also be called . The coordinator of an ''ichiza'', he or she is responsible for the completion of a ''renga''. Has the authority to dismiss an improper verse. The most experienced of the ''renju'' should be the ''sōshō'' to keep the ''renga'' interesting.
* : The main guest of the ''ichiza'' and responsible for creating the ''hokku''.
* : The patron of a ''renga'' gathering, who provides the place.
* : The "secretary" of the ''renga'', as it were, who is responsible for writing down ''renga'' verses and for the proceedings of the ''renga''.
* : Using letters (i.e. the post), telegraph, telephone, or even fax machines for making a ''renga''. Using the internet is also considered a form of ''bunnin''.
*''yukiyō'' (行様): The flow of the sequence created by the patterns of links and the shifting of the verses.

See also

* Collaborative poetry
* Exquisite corpse
*'' Hokku'', the opening verse of ''renga'' and '' renku'', as well as a standalone 17-mora poem, which developed into the independent haiku
*'' Renku'', the popular derivative of ''renga'', which reached its artistic peak in the 17th century
*'' Renri Hishō'', an influential text on ''renga'' poetics
*'' Renshi'', modern development of ''renga'' and ''renku''

References

Citations

Works cited

*

Further reading

* A discussion of the features, history and aesthetics of ''renga'', plus two ''renga'' sequences with Sōgi and others, three haikai sequences with Matsuo Bashō and others, and one haikai sequence with Yosa Buson and a friend.

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Collaborative poetry
Japanese literary terminology
Japanese poetic forms
Stanzaic form
Genres of poetry