Religion and environmentalism is an emerging interdisciplinary subfield in the academic disciplines of religious studies, religious ethics, the

sociology of religion Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices and organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology. This objective investigation may include the use both of quantitative methods (surveys, ...

, and

theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing th ...

amongst others, with

environmentalism Environmentalism or environmental rights is a broad Philosophy of life, philosophy, ideology, and social movement regarding concerns for environmental protection and improvement of the health of the environment (biophysical), environment, par ...

and

ecological Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps wi ...

principles as a primary focus. Within the context of

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...

, in the

encyclical An encyclical was originally a circular letter sent to all the churches of a particular area in the ancient Roman Church. At that time, the word could be used for a letter sent out by any bishop. The word comes from the Late Latin (originally fr ...

" Laudato si'",

Pope Francis Pope Francis ( la, Franciscus; it, Francesco; es, link=, Francisco; born Jorge Mario Bergoglio, 17 December 1936) is the head of the Catholic Church. He has been the bishop of Rome and sovereign of the Vatican City State since 13 March 2013 ...

called to fight

climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...

and ecological degradation as a whole. He claimed that humanity is facing a severe

ecological crisis An ecological or environmental crises occurs when changes to the environment of a species or population destabilizes its continued survival. Some of the important causes include: * Degradation of an abiotic ecological factor (for example, incr ...

and blamed

consumerism Consumerism is a social and economic order that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. With the Industrial Revolution, but particularly in the 20th century, mass production led to overproduction—the su ...

and irresponsible development. The encyclical is addressed to "every person living on this planet."

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

includes many principles linked to sustainability. The

Dalai Lama Dalai Lama (, ; ) is a title given by the Tibetan people to the foremost spiritual leader of the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest and most dominant of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th and current D ...

has consistently called for strong climate action, reforestation, preserving ecosystems, a reduction in meat consumption. He declared that if he will ever join a political party it will be the green party and if Buddha returned to our world now: “

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...

would be green.” The leaders of Buddhism issued a special declaration calling on all believers to fight climate change and environmental destruction as a whole.

General overview

Crisis of values

This subfield is founded on the understanding that, in the words of Iranian-American

philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...

Seyyed Hossein Nasr Seyyed Hossein Nasr (; fa, سید حسین نصر, born April 7, 1933) is an Iranian philosopher and University Professor of Islamic studies at George Washington University. Born in Tehran, Nasr completed his education in Iran and the Unite ...

, "the environmental crisis is fundamentally a crisis of values," and that

religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatur ...

s, being a primary source of values in any

culture Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups ...

, are thus implicated in the decisions humans make regarding the

environment Environment most often refers to: __NOTOC__ * Natural environment, all living and non-living things occurring naturally * Biophysical environment, the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism or ...

. For example, a recent study shows that religion, as the primary source of values for religious people, can help narrow the political gap between liberals and conservatives over environmental protection.

Burden of guilt

Historian A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the st ...

Lynn White Jr. made the argument in a 1966 lecture before the

American Academy of Arts and Sciences The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (abbreviation: AAA&S) is one of the oldest learned societies in the United States. It was founded in 1780 during the American Revolution by John Adams, John Hancock, James Bowdoin, Andrew Oliver, a ...

, subsequently published in the journal ''

Science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence ...

'', that

Western Christianity Western Christianity is one of two sub-divisions of Christianity ( Eastern Christianity being the other). Western Christianity is composed of the Latin Church and Western Protestantism, together with their offshoots such as the Old Catholi ...

, having de- sacralized and instrumentalized

nature Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are ...

to human ends, bears a substantial "burden of guilt" for the contemporary environmental crisis. White's essay stimulated a flurry of responses, ranging from defenses of

to qualified admissions to complete agreement with his analysis.

Eastern religions and indigenous peoples

Some proposed that

Eastern religions The Eastern religions are the religions which originated in East, South and Southeast Asia and thus have dissimilarities with Western, African and Iranian religions. This includes the East Asian religions such as Confucianism, Taoism, Chine ...

, as well as those of

indigenous peoples Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...

, neo-pagans, and others, offered more eco-friendly worldviews than Christianity. A third, more obscure camp, argued that while White's theory was indeed correct, this was actually a benefit to society, and that thinning the populations of weaker plant and animal species via environmental destruction would lead to the

evolution Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...

of stronger, more productive creatures. See Kaitiaki in

Māori religion Māori religion encompasses the various religious beliefs and practices of the Māori, the Polynesian indigenous people of New Zealand. Traditional Māori religion Traditional Māori religion, that is, the pre-European belief-system of the M ...

Religion and ecology

By the 1990s, many scholars of religion had entered the debate and begun to generate a substantial body of literature discussing and analyzing how nature is valued in the world's various religious systems. A landmark event was a series of ten conferences on Religion and Ecology organized by

Yale University Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the w ...

professors Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim and held at the

Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of highe ...

Center for the Study of World Religions from 1996 to 1998. More than 800 international scholars, religious leaders, and environmentalists participated in the conference series. The conferences concluded at the United Nations and at the American Museum of Natural History with more than 1,000 people in attendance. Papers from the conferences were published in a series of ten books (The Religions of the World and Ecology Book Series), one for each of the world's major religious traditions. From these conferences, Tucker and Grim would form The Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology. The Forum has been instrumental in the creation of scholarship, in forming environmental policy, and in the greening of religion. In addition to their work with the Forum, Tucker and Grim's work continues in the ''Journey of the Universe'' film, book, and educational DVD series. It continues to be the largest international multireligious project of its kind. An active Religion and Ecology group has been in existence within the

American Academy of Religion The American Academy of Religion (AAR) is the world's largest association of scholars in the field of religious studies and related topics. It is a nonprofit member association, serving as a professional and learned society for scholars involv ...

since 1991, and an increasing number of universities in

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and th ...

and around the world are now offering courses on religion and the environment. Recent scholarship on the field of religion and ecology can be found in the peer-reviewed academic journal ''Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology'' and in reference works such as the encyclopedia ''The Spirit of Sustainability''. Understanding the unique role religious leaders and faith-based communities have in play in the field of conservation, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) established its Sacred Earth: Faiths for Conservation initiative by partnering with faith groups to deliver effective and sustainable conservation strategies.

Religion and nature

Another landmarks in the emerging field was the publication of the ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature'' in 2005, which was edited by Bron Taylor. Taylor also led the effort to form the International Society for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, which was established in 2006, and began publishing the quarterly '' Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture'' in 2007.

Religions and the environment

In 2015 over 150 leaders from various faiths issued a joint statement to the UN Climate Summit in Paris 2015 ahead of the United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP21 in Paris in December 2015. In it they reiterated a statement made in the interfaith summit in New York made in September 2014: We as religious leaders: "stand together to express deep concern for the consequences of climate change on the earth and its people, all entrusted, as our faiths reveal, to our common care. Climate change is indeed a threat to life. Life is a precious gift we have received and that we need to care for".

Buddhism

includes many principles linked to sustainability. The

would be green.” The leaders of Buddhism issued a special declaration calling on all believers to fight climate change and environmental destruction as a whole. The

historical Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...

and other prominent Buddhist figures gave many teachings and instructions on the importance of caring for the environment. These narratives were later written down and compiled in the Buddhist sacred scriptures.

teaches that all things are interconnected on both gross and subtle levels. It teaches that by observing how everything in life happens due to causes and conditions coming together, we come to see how everything is interconnected in complex web of causality. Because humans are entwined with natural systems, damage done upon the

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's sur ...

is also harm done to humans. Through contemplation and investigation, we can begin to develop an understanding which takes us beyond mere intellectual understanding leading us towards realisation of more subtle and profound aspects of interdependent origination. When we have developed this true feeling of interconnectedness, it will naturally influence the way in which we relate to our external world. In the '' first turning of the Dharma wheel'', it is taught that attachment is a cause of

suffering Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness or aversion, possibly associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence of a ...

. Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, spent his life searching to understand what is human suffering, what is it causes and how can one liberate themself from this suffering. Just as we experience suffering so too do other sentient beings. It is from this basis that we can develop the aspiration to alleviate them from their suffering. Since beginningless time it is taught that at one time all beings have been our kind parents, so by wishing to repay their kindness we can come to develop compassion for all sentient beings, by developing the aspiration to relieve them of their suffering and the causes of suffering. Buddhism teaches that merely listening to and reading the words is not sufficient to bring about transformation within our minds. We need to contemplate them and then apply them to our daily lives. Developing compassion takes training and practice, but by developing habitual tendencies to bring benefit to others, a more healthy relationship with others and our environment will naturally develop. Buddha taught that a balance must be established between self-destruction and self-indulgence. These days much emphasis is placed on the economic and social aspects of life and environmental aspects are often overlooked. When human preferences are leveled by developing compassion and equanimity, there is balance and harmony within the mind which has an impact on our actions of body and speech. In summary, Buddhism provides a structured framework that creates not only short-term solutions to amending the broken relationship between humanity and nature,Badiner, A.H. (1990). Dharma Gaia. United States of America: Parallax Press. but it also teaches us how we can fulfill our ultimate collective aspirations.

The Dalai Lama

The Dalai Lama has done much to promote environmental awareness and support initiatives that help protect the environment. In a meeting with the U.S Ambassador to the Republic of India Timothy J. Roemer, the

urged the U.S to engage China on climate change in

Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...

. The Dalai Lama has also been part of a series on discussions organised by the Mind and Life Institute; a non-profit organisation that specializes the relationship between

science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence ...

and Buddhism. The talks were partly about ecology, ethics, and interdependence, and issues on global warming were brought up In 2010 he published the book ''Our Only Home: A Climate Appeal to the World'' and in January 2021 was engaged in conversation on The Crisis of Climate Feedback Loops with

Greta Thunberg Greta Tintin Eleonora Ernman Thunberg (; born 3 January 2003) is a Swedish environmental activist who is known for challenging world leaders to take immediate action for climate change mitigation. Thunberg's activism began when she persuaded ...

and leading scientists William Moomaw and Susan Natali

The 17th Gyalwang Karmapa, Ogyen Trinley Dorje

The 17th Gyalwang Karmapa, Ogyen Trinley Dorje is a passionate environmentalist who often incorporates this theme into his teachings and public talks In 2007 during the Kagyu Monlam Chenmo, he suggested that planting a single tree can be more beneficial than performing life release for many beings, and recommended that monasteries should plant one to two thousand trees. In addition he urged monks to practise restraint when sponsors offer technology upgrades. In 2008 he established the Khoryug network meaning "environment" in Tibetan. He helped to connect over 50 monasteries, nunneries and centres throughout India, Nepal and Bhutan in the Himalayas and South India, who jointly made the commitment to help protect the Himalayan region from environmental degradation by acting in sustainable and environmentally friendly ways. In 2008 he published Environmental Guidelines for

Karma Kagyu Karma Kagyu (), or Kamtsang Kagyu (), is a widely practiced and probably the second-largest lineage within the Kagyu school, one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The lineage has long-standing monasteries in Tibet, China, Russia, ...

Buddhist Monasteries, which address environmental issues such as Forest, Water, and Wildlife protection, Waste management, and ways to tackle Climate Change by offering solutions based on the most recent scientific and practical knowledge available. In 2009, the Karmapa approached the WWF to assist the Khoryug network. As a result, more than 55 environmental projects such as solar panel installation were implemented by Khoryug monasteries. In 2009 he published the book ''The Future Is Now: Timely Advice for Creating a Better World'' which offers advice on caring for the environment. In 2015 he published the book ''The Heart is Noble: Changing the World from the Inside Out'' where he shares his vision for bringing social action into daily life, and in 2017 he published the book ''Interconnected: Embracing Life in Our Global Society'' which explores the interconnected relationships we have with family, community, and the rest of humanity, and how through these relationships we can become effective agents of social and ethical change. He also published a booklet entitled "One Hundred and Eight Things you can do to help the Environment" which was released on Earth Day, on 22 April 2009. At the second conference on environmental protection (3 to 8 October 2009, Gyuto Monastery), he stated :: "For too long, people have behaved thoughtlessly and ignored the damage to the environment that they are creating and, if this continued there was a great danger that it would be too late to do anything". On 24 October 2009, Ogyen Trinley Dorje supported international climate action day at a gathering at McLeod Ganj in northern India. In 2014, during his first European world tour he said: :: "We should never exploit the world we live in for the purpose of short-term benefits. Rather than considering the Earth as a material thing, we should consider it as a mother who nurtures us; from generation to generation we need this loving mother". In Spring 2015 he participated in a two month tour of the United States, where he visited six major universities, and delivered public talks focusing on environmental protection and compassionate activism. At this time he was awarded

Yale Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wor ...

’s prestigious Chubb Fellowship, and at The

University of Redlands The University of Redlands is a private university headquartered in Redlands, California. The university's main, residential campus is situated on 160 acres (65 ha) near downtown Redlands. An additional eight regional locations throughout Califo ...

he was awarded an honorary doctorate degree

Choje Akong Tulku Rinpoche

Choje Akong Tulku Rinpoche was actively engaged in helping protect the environment. In the Tibetan Areas of China through the Rokpa charity, he established a programme of reforestation over a period of several years and in on the Holy Mountain of Drakkar he arranged for local people to be employed as rangers, to protect their local flora and fauna. Seeing that that new demand was driving the herbs used in Tibetan medicine close to extinction, he initiated a pioneering project to preserve them by bringing three young doctors to the Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh to study horticulture and biodynamics.

Lama Yeshe Losal Rinpoche

Lama Yeshe Losal Rinpoche works to spread environmental awareness through his teachings and public talks. He is the founder of The Holy Isle project on

Holy Island, Firth of Clyde The Holy Island or Holy Isle ( gd, Eilean MoLaise) is an island in the Firth of Clyde, off the west coast of central Scotland, inside Lamlash Bay on the larger Isle of Arran. The island is around long and around wide. Its highest point is the ...

, which was purchased by the Rokpa Trust in 1992. Lama Yeshe's vision is to create a peaceful, sacred space, guided by environmental considerations for people of all faiths and religions. Since acquiring the island up to 50 thousand indigenous trees have been planted as part of the "Trees for Peace" project. This was developed in consultation with the Scottish Forestry Commission, the Scottish Office, the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group, and other environmental experts, and has helped to recreate a woodland habitat to support biodiversity. A designated nature reserve for native animals, birds, and sea-life has been created on the east side of the island, and at the north end of the island, there is the Centre of World Peace and Health, whose design and construction is based upon environmental

sustainability Specific definitions of sustainability are difficult to agree on and have varied in the literature and over time. The concept of sustainability can be used to guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. sustainable livi ...

, sensitive to the ecology of its unique environment. In creating a place where humans and animals can live in peace and harmony, Holy Isle has become a model of environmentally friendly living.

Thích Nhất Hạnh

In 2014,

Thích Nhất Hạnh Thích Nhất Hạnh ( ; ; born Nguyễn Xuân Bảo; 11 October 1926 – 22 January 2022) was a Vietnamese Thiền Buddhist monk, peace activist, prolific author, poet and teacher, who founded the Plum Village Tradition, historically recogni ...

addressed the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established an international environmental treaty to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system", in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in ...

Christianity

The status of nature in

has been hotly debated, especially since historian Lynn White published the now classic ''"The historical roots of present-day ecologic crisis"'' in 1967. In it, White blames Christianity for the modern environmental crisis, which he concludes is largely due to the dominance of a Christian world-view in the West that is exploitative of nature in an unsustainable manner.Gary Steiner, 2004, Descartes as a Moral Thinker: Christianity, Technology, Nihilism], Humanity Books, 219. He asserts that proponents of the Abrahamic religions, Judeo-Christian ethic are anti-ecological, hostile towards nature, and view nature as something separate from humanity, to be exploited by mankind. This exploitative attitude, combined with new technology and the industrial revolution, has wreaked havoc on the natural world. Colonial forestry is a prime example of ecological destruction that also involves the destruction of native faiths.Gregory Allen Barton, 2002
Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism
Page 165. See the "Burden of guilt" section above.

Catholic Church

Pope Francis clearly demonstrated his concerns about protecting the environment and indigenous peoples in his first-ever address to an international audience in Brazil in 2013. Having heard about the plight of the Amazon rainforests in Brazil, he called for "respect and protection of the entire creation which God has entrusted to man.""Pope Francis Calls for Amazon Conservation" https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/pope-francis-calls-for-amazon-conservation Under his guidance, The Global Catholic Climate Movement (GCCM) was established, offering advise on how to live in harmony with our environment by transforming our lifestyles, as well as calling for bold public policies to tackle climate change. At the beginning of the 21st century,

published the

'' Laudato si''', a document calling humanity to preserve the sustainability of the biosphere. The encyclical is taught in the academy of the

Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future".United Nations (2017) R ...

The document is also called: "on care for our common home." In the encyclical, the pope calls to fight

and ecological degradation as a whole. He claims that humanity is facing a severe

and blames

and non responsible development. The encyclical is addressed to "every person living on this planet."

Latter Day Saint movement

Mormon Mormons are a religious and cultural group related to Mormonism, the principal branch of the Latter Day Saint movement started by Joseph Smith in upstate New York during the 1820s. After Smith's death in 1844, the movement split into se ...

environmentalists find theological reasons for stewardship and conservationism through biblical and additional scriptural references including a passages from the

Doctrine and Covenants The Doctrine and Covenants (sometimes abbreviated and cited as D&C or D. and C.) is a part of the open scriptural canon of several denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. Originally published in 1835 as Doctrine and Covenants of the Chu ...

: "And it pleaseth God that he hath given all these things unto man; for unto this end were they made to be used, with judgment, not to excess, neither by extortion" ( D&C 59:20). The

Latter Day Saint movement The Latter Day Saint movement (also called the LDS movement, LDS restorationist movement, or Smith–Rigdon movement) is the collection of independent church groups that trace their origins to a Christian Restorationist movement founded by Jo ...

has a complex relationship with environmental concerns, involving not only the religion but politics and economics. In terms of

environmentally friendly Environment friendly processes, or environmental-friendly processes (also referred to as eco-friendly, nature-friendly, and green), are sustainability and marketing terms referring to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies that cl ...

policies,

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, informally known as the LDS Church or Mormon Church, is a Nontrinitarianism, nontrinitarian Christianity, Christian church that considers itself to be the Restorationism, restoration of the ...

has a history of utilizing elements of conservationist policies for their meetinghouses. The church first placed

solar panels A solar cell panel, solar electric panel, photo-voltaic (PV) module, PV panel or solar panel is an assembly of photovoltaic solar cells mounted in a (usually rectangular) frame, and a neatly organised collection of PV panels is called a photo ...

on a church meetinghouse in the Tuamotu Islands in 2007. In 2010, the church unveiled five

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a green building certification program used worldwide. Developed by the non-profit U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), it includes a set of rating systems for the design, construction ...

certified meetinghouse prototypes that are that will be used as future meetinghouse designs around the world, the first one having been completed in 2010 in

Farmington, Utah Farmington is a city in Davis County, Utah, United States. The population was 24,531 at the 2020 census. The Lagoon Amusement Park and Station Park transit-oriented retail center (which includes a FrontRunner train station) are located in Far ...

Hinduism

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

, practitioners and scholars find traditional approaches to the natural environment in such concepts as dharmic ethics or prakrti (material creation), the development of

ayurveda Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population rep ...

, and readings of

vedic literature upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

. Hindu environmental activism also may be inspired by

Gandhian philosophy Gandhism is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of M.K. Gandhi. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of nonviolent resistance, sometimes also called civil resistance. The term " ...

and practical struggles, such as the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan and Chipko resistance to

forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. ...

policies in

Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 195 ...

, India. Mahatma Gandhi played a major role in Indian environmentalism, and has been called the "father of Indian environmentalism". Gandhi's environmental thought parallels his social thoughts in that environmental sustainability and social inequalities should be managed in similar fashions. His non-violent teachings left a lasting impact, even agriculturally. Contemporary agrarian practices use the Bhagavad-Gita to establish practices that are deemed non-violent.

Islam

The

Quran The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , ...

and the Prophetic Traditions ayings and actions of Muhammadmake it clear that the environment is a blessing and a sign of the divine. The Quran refers to natural phenomena numerous times and compels readers to ponder over the environment as a reflection of the truth – a signpost to a designer. One can gain profound knowledge from nature, so human beings are to preserve it and look after it. The concept of humanity having Khilafah''' or guardianship over the planet means that many Muslims believe that we should not exploit natural resources. The Quran refers to living beings as 'communities like yourselves' Some scholars have said that this entails that other living beings have rights. Sayings of Muhammad related to the environment: ''- "If a Muslim plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, it is regarded as a charitable gift for him." ukhari' ''- The Companions .e. the disciples of the prophetsaid, "O Messenger of God! Is there a reward for us in serving the animals?" He replied: "There is a reward for serving any living being." ukhari' ''- "A woman entered the Fire because of a cat which she had tied, neither giving it food nor setting it free to eat from the vermin of the earth." ukhari' ''- "The world is beautiful and verdant, and verily God, be He exalted, has made you His stewards in it, and He sees how you acquit yourselves." uslim' ''- "Do not waste water, even if you are at a running stream." bn Majah' ''- "If the Hour (the day of Resurrection) is about to be established and one of you was holding a sapling, let him take advantage of even one second before the Hour is established to plant it." l-Albani' Verses of the Quran linked to environmental protection: '''He is the One Who has placed you as successors halifaon earth ... so He may test you with what He has given you. '''O Children of Adam! ... Eat and drink, but do not waste. Surely He does not like the wasteful. '''...do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption. '''Indeed, We offered the trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they ˹all˺ declined to bear it, being fearful of it. But humanity assumed it, ˹for˺ they are truly wrongful ˹to themselves˺ and ignorant ˹of the consequences˺ '''All living beings roaming the earth and winged birds soaring in the sky are communities like yourselves. One of the primary figures of the religion and environmentalism movement, Iranian Muslim philosopher

, details the theme of "man's total disharmony with his environment." Nasr believes that to overcome the environmental crisis there needs to be a recognition that "the whole of nature is descended from higher spiritual realms." According to Nasr, the desacralization of the West has led to the increase of ideology promoting dominion over the earth and its resources, which is contrary to Islamic thinking. According to conservationist and scholar Jonathan Benthall, Islam offers a useful perspective of environmentalism through two primary themes. The first being the "glory and logic of the cosmos and of the cyclical regeneration of life" that is visible through Qur'anic passages, particularly ones referencing stewardship (''

khalifa Khalifa or Khalifah (Arabic: خليفة) is a name or title which means "successor", "ruler" or "leader". It most commonly refers to the leader of a Caliphate, but is also used as a title among various Islamic religious groups and others. Khalif ...

)''. The second theme Benthall references is the very environmental basis from which Islam was founded, "an environment where natural recourses, especially water, fruit trees, and livestock have always had to be carefully conserved to ensure human survival, a concern which is inevitably reflected in the Qur'an." Many Muslims have taken up climate activism. The Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environmental Science is charity organization dedicated to offering up dialogues and encouraging activism that combines both Islamic perspectives and ecological

. The organization's objectives are to generate a center for Islamic research that will also serve as a location with which to gather and experiment with new sustainable technologies. In

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...

, the concept of a hima or "inviolate zone" refers to a piece of land that has been set aside to prevent cultivation or any use other than spiritual purposes. This concept, in addition to alternative interpretations of Islamic teachings, such as

sufism Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality ...

, are found to be helpful in developing an Islamic pro-environmental ethics.

Judaism

Judaism Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in th ...

, the natural world plays a central role in

Jewish law ''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical comman ...

, literature, and liturgical and other practices. Within the diverse arena of Jewish thought, beliefs vary widely about the human relation to the environment, though the rabbinic tradition has put Judaism primarily on an anthropocentric trajectory. However, a few contemporary Jewish thinkers and rabbis in the US and

Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...

emphasized that a central belief in Judaism is that the Man (Ha Adam – האדם whose root comes from Haadama (earth) – האדמה, in

Hebrew language Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserve ...

), should keep the Earth in the same state as he received it from God, its eternal and actual "owner" (especially for the land of

), thus the people today should avoid polluting it and keep it clean for the future generations. According to this opinion, Judaism is clearly in line with the principles of environmental protection and

sustainable development Sustainable development is an organizing principle for meeting human development goals while also sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The ...

. In Jewish law (''halakhah''), ecological concerns are reflected in Biblical protection for fruit trees, rules in the

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...

against harming the public domain,

Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...

ic debate over noise and smoke

damages At common law, damages are a remedy in the form of a monetary award to be paid to a claimant as compensation for loss or injury. To warrant the award, the claimant must show that a breach of duty has caused foreseeable loss. To be recognised at ...

, and contemporary

responsa ''Responsa'' (plural of Latin , 'answer') comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars in response to questions addressed to them. In the modern era, the term is used to describe decisions and rulings made by scholars ...

agricultural pollution Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests. The pol ...

. In

Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, is a Jewish religious movement which regards the authority of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions as coming primarily from its people and community through the generati ...

, there has been some attempt to adopt ecokashrut ideas developed in the 1970s by Rabbi Zalman Schachter-Shalomi. In addition, Jewish activists have recruited principles of ''halakhah'' for environmental purposes, such as the injunction against unnecessary destruction, known as bal tashkhit. In contemporary Jewish liturgy, ecological concerns have been promoted by adapting a

kabbalistic Kabbalah ( he, קַבָּלָה ''Qabbālā'', literally "reception, tradition") is an esoteric method, discipline and Jewish theology, school of thought in Jewish mysticism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ( ''Məqūbbāl'' "rece ...

ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...

for the holiday of trees, Tu Bishvat. Biblical and rabbinic texts have been enlisted for prayers about the environment, especially in

Orthodox Judaism Orthodox Judaism is the collective term for the traditionalist and theologically conservative branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Written and Oral, as revealed by God to Moses o ...

and

Jewish Renewal Jewish Renewal () is a recent movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and musical practices. Specifically, it seeks to reintroduce the "ancient Judaic traditions of mysticism and meditation, ...

movements. In the U.S., a diverse coalition of Jewish environmentalists undertakes both educational and policy advocacy on such issues as

biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic ('' genetic variability''), species ('' species diversity''), and ecosystem ('' ecosystem diversity'') ...

and

global warming In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...

. Jewish environmentalists are drawn from all branches of religious life, ranging from Rabbi Arthur Waskow to the Orthodox group Canfei Nesharim. In Israel, secular Jews have formed numerous governmental and

non-governmental organizations A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in ...

to protect nature and reduce pollution. While many Israeli environmental organizations make limited use of Jewish religious teachings, a few do approach Israel's environmental problems from a Jewish standpoint, including the Heschel Center for Environmental Learning and Leadership, named after

Abraham Joshua Heschel Abraham Joshua Heschel (January 11, 1907 – December 23, 1972) was a Polish-born American rabbi and one of the leading Jewish theologians and Jewish philosophers of the 20th century. Heschel, a professor of Jewish mysticism at the Jewish T ...

Taoism

Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...

offers many ideas that are in line with environmentalism, such as

wu wei ''Wu wei'' () is an ancient Chinese concept literally meaning "inexertion", "inaction", or "effortless action". ''Wu wei'' emerged in the Spring and Autumn period, and from Confucianism, to become an important concept in Chinese statecraft and T ...

, moderation,

compassion Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to relieve the physical, mental or emotional pains of others and themselves. Compassion is often regarded as being sensitive to the emotional aspects of the suffering of others. When based on n ...

and Taoist

animism Animism (from Latin: ' meaning ' breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things— animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather syst ...

. Parallels were found between Taoism and

deep ecology Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that promotes the inherent worth of all living beings regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs, and the restructuring of modern human societies in accordance with such ideas. Deep ecolo ...

. Pioneer of environmentalism

John Muir John Muir ( ; April 21, 1838December 24, 1914), also known as "John of the Mountains" and "Father of the National Parks", was an influential Scottish-American naturalist, author, environmental philosopher, botanist, zoologist, glaciologis ...

was called "the Taoist of the West". Rosenfeld wrote "Taoism is environmentalism".Dr Zai, J
''Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health and more''
Ultravisum, 2015.J. Baird Earth's Insights: A Multicultural Survey of Ecological Ethics from the Mediterranean Basin to the Australian Outback Callicott

Jainism

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...

, the ancient and perhaps timeless philosophical concepts, like '' Parasparopagraho Jivanam'', were more recently compiled into
Jain Declaration on Nature
which describes the religion's inherent biocentrism and deep ecology.

Sikhism

In the Sikh faith, it is believed that one should treat air as one's Guru (the spiritual teacher), water as one's father and the earth as the Great Mother. (Guru Nanak Dev Ji in the Siri Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scriptures of the Sikhs Page 8 Line 10.) More than five hundred and fifty years ago, Guru Nanak Dev Ji wrote in prayer on Page 8 Line 10 wrote, " We are all the children of air which is word of the Guru, water the Father, and earth the Great Mother who sustains us all."

References

External links

Journey of the Universe

Creation Care Reading Room
– online resources for Christian environmental ethics ( Tyndale Seminary)
Religion and Nature

Stories from America's Religious-Environmental Movement
( Renewal (film))
Islam, Christianity and the Environment

The Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre The Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought (abbr. RABIIT) is an international Islamic non-governmental, independent institute in Amman, Jordan. It is affiliated with the Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre. The late King Hussein ...

* WWF �
Sacred Earth: Faiths for Conservation
*
Jain faith statement on the environment
* How Taiwan uses Buddhist literature for environment education"

{{Authority control Environmentalism and religion, Religious studies