Indian aesthetics Indian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or with representing them symbolically. Rasas in the performing arts The theory of rasas still forms the aesthetic underpinning of a ...

, a rasa ( sa, रस) literally means "nectar, essence or taste".Monier Monier-Williams (1899)
Rasa
Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Motilal Banarsidass (Originally Published: Oxford) It connotes a concept in Indian arts about the aesthetic flavour of any visual, literary or musical work that evokes an emotion or feeling in the reader or audience but cannot be described.Rasa: Indian Aesthetic Theory
Encyclopedia Britannica (2013) It refers to the emotional flavors/essence crafted into the work by the writer and relished by a 'sensitive spectator' or ''sahṛdaya,'' literally one who "has heart", and can connect to the work with emotion, without dryness. Rasas are created by ''bhavas'': the state of mind. The ''rasa'' theory has a dedicated section (Chapter 6) in the

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

text '' Natya Shastra'', an ancient text on the arts from the 1st millennium BCE attributed to Bharata Muni. However, its most complete exposition in drama, songs and other performance arts is found in the works of the Kashmiri

Shaivite Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...

philosopher

Abhinavagupta Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 CE) was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logicianRe-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, ...

(c. 1000 CE), demonstrating the persistence of a long-standing aesthetic tradition of ancient India. According to the ''Rasa'' theory of the ''Natya Shastra'', entertainment is a desired effect of performance arts but not the primary goal, and the primary goal is to transport the audience into another parallel reality, full of wonder and bliss, where they experience the essence of their own consciousness, and reflect on spiritual and moral questions. Although the concept of rasa is fundamental to many forms of Indian arts including dance,

music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspe ...

, theatre, painting, sculpture, and

literature Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include ...

, the interpretation and implementation of a particular rasa differs between different styles and schools. The Indian theory of ''rasa'' is also found in the Hindu arts and

Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...

musical productions in Bali and

Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's mos ...

(Indonesia), but with regional creative evolution.

History

The word ''rasa'' appears in ancient

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

literature. In ''

Rigveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one ...

'', it connotes a liquid, an extract and flavor. In '' Atharvaveda'', ''rasa'' in many contexts means "taste", and also the sense of "the sap of grain". According to Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe – a professor of Drama, ''rasa'' in the

Upanishad The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

s refers to the "essence, self-luminous consciousness, quintessence" but also "taste" in some contexts. In post-Vedic literature, the word generally connotes "extract, essence, juice or tasty liquid". Rasa in an aesthetic sense is suggested in the Vedic literature, but the oldest surviving manuscripts, with the ''rasa'' theory of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

, are of ''Natya Shastra''. The Aitareya Brahmana in chapter 6, for example, states: The Sanskrit text ''Natya shastra'' presents the ''rasa'' theory in Chapter 6, a text attributed to Bharata Muni. The text begins its discussion with a sutra called in Indian aesthetics as the ''rasa sutra'': According to the ''Natya shastra'', the goals of theatre are to empower aesthetic experience and deliver emotional ''rasa''. The text states that the aim of art is manifold. In many cases, it aims to produce repose and relief for those exhausted with labor, or distraught with grief, or laden with misery, or struck by austere times. Yet entertainment is an effect, but not the primary goal of arts according to ''Natya shastra''. The primary goal is to create ''rasa'' so as to lift and transport the spectators, unto the expression of ultimate reality and transcendent values. The '' Abhinavabhāratī'' is the most studied commentary on ''Natyasastra'', written by

(950–1020 CE), who referred to ''Natyasastra'' also as the ''Natyaveda''. Abhinavagupta's analysis of ''Natyasastra'' is notable for its extensive discussion of aesthetic and ontological questions. According to Abhinavagupta, the success of an artistic performance is measured not by the reviews, awards or recognition the production receives, but only when it is performed with skilled precision, devoted faith and pure concentration such that the artist gets the audience emotionally absorbed into the art and immerses the spectator with pure joy of ''rasa'' experience.

Elements

Bharata Muni enunciated the eight Rasas in the '' Nātyasāstra'', an ancient Sanskrit text of dramatic theory and other performance arts, written between 200 BC and 200 AD. In the

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

n performing arts, a ''rasa'' is a sentiment or emotion evoked in each member of the audience by the art. The ''Natya Shastra'' mentions six rasa in one section, but in the dedicated section on ''rasa'' it states and discusses eight primary ''rasa''. Each rasa, according to Nātyasāstra, has a presiding deity and a specific colour. There are 4 pairs of rasas. For instance, Hāsya arises out of

Sringara Sringara ( sa, शृङ्गार, ) is one of the nine rasas, usually translated as erotic love, romantic love, or as attraction or beauty. ''Rasa'' means "flavour", and the theory of rasa is the primary concept behind classical Indian arts inc ...

. The Aura of a frightened person is black, and the aura of an angry person is red. Bharata Muni established the following: * (शृङ्गारः): Romance, Love, attractiveness. Presiding deity:

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...

. Colour: light green * (हास्यं): Laughter, mirth, comedy. Presiding deity:

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...

. Colour: white * (रौद्रं): Fury. Presiding deity:

. Colour: red * (कारुण्यं): Compassion, mercy. Presiding deity:

Yama Yama (Devanagari: यम) or Yamarāja (यमराज), is a deity of death, dharma, the south direction, and the underworld who predominantly features in Hindu and Buddhist religion, belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities. ...

. Colour: grey * (बीभत्सं): Disgust, aversion. Presiding deity:

. Colour: blue * (भयानकं): Horror, terror. Presiding deity:

. Colour: black * (वीरं): Heroism. Presiding deity: Indra. Colour:

saffron Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of ''Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in ...

* (अद्भुतं): Wonder, amazement. Presiding deity:

Brahma Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 21 ...

. Colour: yellow

Śāntam rasa

A ninth rasa was added by later authors. This addition had to undergo a good deal of struggle between the sixth and the tenth centuries, before it could be accepted by the majority of the Alankarikas, and the expression "''Navarasa''" (the nine rasas), could come into vogue. *: Peace or tranquility. deity:

. Colour: perpetual white. Shānta-rasa functions as an equal member of the set of rasas, but it is simultaneously distinct as being the most clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likens it to the string of a jeweled necklace; while it may not be the most appealing for most people, it is the string that gives form to the necklace, allowing the jewels of the other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasas and particularly shānta-rasa is hinted as being as-good-as but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realization experienced by yogis.

List of bhavas

According to the ''Natyashastra'', bhavas are of three types: sthayi, sanchari, sattvika based on how they are developed or enacted during the aesthetic experience. This is seen in the following passage:

पुनश्च भावान्वक्ष्यामि स्थायिसञ्चारिसत्त्वजान्॥६.१६॥

Some bhavas are also described as being anubhava if they arise from some other bhAva.

Sthayee

The ''Natyasastra'' lists eight '' Sthayibhavas'' with eight corresponding ''rasas'': *''Rati'' (Love) *''Hasya'' (Mirth) *''Soka (शोक)'' (Sorrow) *''Krodha'' (Anger) *''Utsaha'' (Energy) *''Bhaya'' (Terror) *''Jugupsa'' (Disgust) *''Vismaya'' (Astonishment) This list is from the following passage:

रतिहासश्च शोकश्च क्रोधोत्साहौ भयं तथा।
जुगुप्सा विस्मयश्चेति स्थायिभावाः प्रकीर्तिताः॥६.१७॥

Sanchari

Sanchari Bhavas are those crossing feelings which are ancillary to a permanent mood.C.Ramanujachari and Dr. V. Raghavan. ''The Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja''. A list of 33 bhAvas are identified therein.

निर्वेदग्लानिशङ्काख्यास्तथासूया मदः श्रमः।
आलस्यं चैव दैन्यं च चिन्तामोहः स्मृतिर्धृतिः॥१८॥
व्रीडा चपलता हर्ष आवेगो जडता तथा।
गर्वो विषाद औत्सुक्यं निद्रापस्मार एव च॥१९॥
सुप्तं विबोधोऽमर्षश्चापि अवहित्थं अथोग्रता।
मतिर्व्याधिस्तथा उन्मादस्तथा मरणमेव च॥२०॥
त्रासश्चैव वितर्कश्च विज्ञेया व्यभिचारिणः।
त्रयस्त्रिंशदमी भावाः समाख्यातास्तु नामतः॥२१॥

Satvika

The Satvika-Bhavas themselves are listed below. There are eight Satvika-Bhavas.

स्तम्भः स्वेदोऽथ रोमाञ्चः स्वरभेदोऽथ वेपथुः।
वैवर्ण्यं अश्रु-प्रलय इत्यष्टौ सात्विकाः स्मृताः॥२२॥

These are explained by Bharata and Dhanika as below:

"सत्त्वं नाम मनःप्रभवम्। एतदेव समाहितमनस्त्वादुत्पद्यते। " इति भरतः।
"एतदेवास्य सत्त्वं यत् दुःखितेन प्रहर्षितेन वा अश्रु-रोमाञ्चादयो निवर्त्यन्ते।
तेन सत्त्वेन निर्वृत्ता भावाः - सात्त्विकाः भावाः। तद्भावभावनं च भावः।" इति धनिकः।
"पृथग् भावा भवन्त्यन्येऽनुभावत्वेऽपि सात्त्विकाः।
सत्त्वादेव समुत्पत्तेस्तच्च तद्भावभावनम्॥" इति धनिकः।

Thus, physical expression of the feelings of the mind are called Sattvika.

Role in art

According to ''Natya shastra'', a ''rasa'' is a synthetic phenomenon and the goal of any creative performance art, oratory, painting or literature. Wallace Dace translates the ancient text's explanation of ''rasa'' as "a relish that of an elemental human emotion like love, pity, fear, heroism or mystery, which forms the dominant note of a dramatic piece; this dominant emotion, as tasted by the audience, has a different quality from that which is aroused in real life; rasa may be said to be the original emotion transfigured by aesthetic delight". Rasas are created through a wide range of means, and the ancient Indian texts discuss many such means. For example, one way is through the use of gestures and facial expressions of the actors. Expressing ''Rasa'' in classical Indian dance form is referred to as Rasa-abhinaya. The theory of rasas forms the aesthetic underpinning of all Indian classical dance and theatre, such as

Bharatanatyam Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of ...

, Kathakali,

Kathak Kathak ( hi, कथक; ur, کتھک) is one of the eight major forms of Indian classical dance. It is the classical dance from of Uttar Pradesh. The origin of Kathak is traditionally attributed to the traveling bards in ancient northern Ind ...

, Kuchipudi,

Odissi Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India.Manipuri,

Kudiyattam Koodiyattam ( ml, കൂടിയാട്ടം; IAST: kūṭiyāṭṭaṁ; ) is a traditional performing art form in the state of Kerala, India. It is a combination of ancient Sanskrit theatre with elements of ''Koothu'', an ancient perform ...

, and others. In Indian classical music, each '' raga'' is an inspired creation for a specific mood, where the musician or ensemble creates the ''rasa'' in the listener. However, predominantly all ''ragas'' and musical performances in Hindu traditions aim at one of six ''rasa'', wherein music is a form of painting "love, compassion, peace, heroism, comic or the feeling of wonder" within the listener. Anger, disgust, fear and such emotions are not the subject of ''rasa'', but they are part of Indian theories on dramatic arts. Of the six ''rasa'' that are aimed at in Indian music, each has sub-categories. For example, love ''rasa'' in Hindu imagination has many musical flavors, such as erotic love (''sringar'') and spiritual devotional love (''bhakti''). In the theories of Indian poetics, ancient scholars state that the effectiveness of a literary composition depends both on what is stated and how it is stated (words, grammar, rhythm), that is the suggested meaning and the experience of ''rasa''. Among the most celebrated in Hindu traditions on the theory of poetics and literary works, are 5th-century Bhartrhari and the 9th-century Anandavardhana, but the theoretical tradition on integrating ''rasa'' into literary artworks likely goes back to a more ancient period. This is generally discussed under the Indian concepts of ''Dhvani'', ''Sabdatattva'' and ''Sphota''. The literary work ''

Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in S ...

'' deploys ''rasa'', presenting Bhakti of

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...

in aesthetic terms. The rasa it presents is as an emotional relish, a mood, which is called Sthayi Bhava. This development towards a relishable state results by the interplay on it of attendant emotional conditions which are called ''Vibhavas'', ''Anubhavas'' and ''Sanchari Bhavas''. Vibhavas means Karana or cause: it is of two kinds - ''Alambana'', the personal or human object and substratum, and ''Uddipana'', the excitants. Anubhava, as the name signifies, means the ensuants or effects following the rise of the emotion. ''Sanchari Bhavas'' are those crossing feelings which are ancillary to a mood. Later scholars added more emotional states such as the ''Saatvika Bhavas''. In the Indian theories on sculpture and architecture ('' Shilpa Shastras''), the ''rasa'' theories, in part, drive the forms, shapes, arrangements and expressions in images and structures. Some Indian texts on ''Shilpa'' on image carving and making, suggest nine ''rasas''.

Influence on cinema

''Rasa'' has been an important influence on the cinema of India. Satyajit Ray has applied the ''Rasa'' method of classical Sanskrit drama to movies, for instance in '' The Apu Trilogy'' (1955–1959). In Hindi cinema, it is the theme of the film Naya Din Nayi Raat, where

Sanjeev Kumar Sanjeev Kumar (born Harihar Jethalal Jariwala; 9 July 1938 – 6 November 1985) was an Indian actor. He is well remembered for his versatility and genuine portrayal of his characters. He acted in genres ranging from romantic dramas to thrille ...

played nine characters corresponding to nine ''Rasa''.

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

Rasa (sentiments) in the Natya-shastra
Translated into English by Manomohan Ghosh
"Rasas" as Springs of Art in Indian Aesthetics
Radhakamal Mukerjee
Archive

"Rasa" as Aesthetic Experience
G. B. Mohan Thampi
Archive

The Theory of Rasa
P. J. Chaudhury
The Aesthetics of Ancient Indian Drama
V. Raghavan {{DEFAULTSORT:Rasa (Aesthetics) Dance in India Concepts in aesthetics Literary theory Sanskrit words and phrases