Ramayana

The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. ''Ramayana'' is one of the two important epics of Hinduism, the other being the '' Mahābhārata''.

The epic, traditionally ascribed to the Maharishi Valmiki, narrates the life of Sita, the Princess of Janakpur, and Rama, a legendary prince of Ayodhya city in the kingdom of Kosala. The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest urged by his father King Dasharatha, on the request of Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi; his travels across forests in the Indian subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana – the king of Lanka, that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya to be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration.

The ''Ramayana'' is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka/ Anustubh meter), divided into seven Khanda (parts) the first and the seventh being later additions. It belongs to the genre of '' Itihasa'', narratives of past events (), interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life.

There are many versions of ''Ramayana'' in Indian languages, besides Buddhist, Sikh and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian ( Reamker), Indonesian, Filipino, Thai (Ramakien), Lao, Burmese and Malay versions of the tale.

The ''Ramayana'' was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and the Hindu life and culture, and its main characters were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of South-East Asian nations, both Hindu and Buddhist. Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (from , - a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society.

Etymology

The name is composed of two words, and . , the name of the central figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda, it means 'dark, dark-coloured, black' and is related to the word which means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata, is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'.Monier Monier Williams
राम
Sanskrit English Dictionary with EtymologyMonier Monier Williams

Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology The word means travel or journey. Thus, means "Rama's progress", with altered to due to the Sanskrit grammar rule of internal sandhi.Monier Monier Williams
अयन
Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology

Textual characteristics

Genre

The ''Ramayana'' belongs to the genre of '' Itihasa'', narratives of past events (), which includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas, and the Ramayana. The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human life. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal husband, and the ideal king. Like the ''Mahabharata'', ''Ramayana'' presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements.

Structure

In its extant form, Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' is an epic poem of some 24,000 verses, divided into seven s (Bālakāṇḍa, Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa, Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters).

Dating

According to Robert P. Goldman, the oldest parts of the ''Ramayana'' date to the mid- 8th century BCE. This is due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism nor the prominence of Magadha. The text also mentions Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala, rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital of Shravasti. In terms of narrative time, the action of the ''Ramayana'' predates the ''Mahabharata''. Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE.

Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda, respectively) seem to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi to the present toward this consensus.

Recensions

The ''Ramayana'' text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions: the northern (n) and the southern (s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the ''Ramayana'', like the ''Mahabharata'', is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."

A ''Times of India'' report dated 18 December 2015 informs about the discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the ''Ramayana'' at the Asiatic Society library, Kolkata.

There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) of Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' were composed by the original author. The uttarākāṇḍa, the bālakāṇḍa, although frequently counted among the main ones, is not a part of the original epic. Though Balakanda is sometimes considered in the main epic, according to many Uttarakanda is certainly a later interpolation and thus is not attributed to the work of Maharshi Valmiki. This fact is reaffirmed by the absence of these two Kāndas in the oldest manuscript. Many Hindus don't believe they are integral parts of the scripture because of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest.

Characters

Synopsis

''Bala Kanda''

This ''Sarga'' (section) details the stories of Rama's childhood and events related to the time frame. Dasharatha was the King of Ayodhya. He had three wives: Kaushalya, Kaikeyi, and Sumitra. He did not have a son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as ''Putra-kameshti Yajna''. As a consequence, Rama was first born to Kaushalya, Bharata was born to Kaikeyi, Lakshmana and Shatrughna were born to Sumitra.

These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the god Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the gods, and who could only be destroyed by a mortal. The boys were reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare from Vashistha. When Rama was 16 years old, sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra and proceed to destroy Tataka and many other demons.

Janaka was the King of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the King in the deep furrow dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the King regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of God". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow. Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. The King had decided that whoever could lift and wield a heavy bow, presented to his ancestors by Shiva, could marry Sita.

Sage Vishwamitra takes Rama and Lakshmana to Mithila to show the bow. Then Rama desires to lift it and goes on to wield the bow and when he draws the string, it broke. Marriages were arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Rama marries Sita, Lakshmana to Urmila, Bharata to Mandavi and Shatrughna to Shrutakirti. The weddings were celebrated with great festivity in Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.

''Ayodhya Kanda''

After Rama and Sita have been married, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi was happy about this, but was later on provoked by Manthara, a wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata.

The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands. Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story. He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me, and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me."

After Rama's departure, King Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile.

''Aranya Kanda''

After thirteen years of exile, Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana journey southward along the banks of the river Godavari, where they build cottages and live off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasi named Shurpanakha, sister of Ravana. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothers Khara and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas.

When the news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the ''rakshasa'' Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Rama, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard.

After some time, Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama cannot be hurt that easily and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshman's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rama. With the coast finally clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sita is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Ravana.

Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita but is mortally wounded. In Lanka, Sita is kept under the guard of ''rakshasis''. Ravana asks Sita to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.

''Kishkindha Kanda''

Citadel ''Kishkindha Kanda'' is set in the place of Vanaras (Vana-nara) - Forest dwelling humans. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the biggest devotee of Rama, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha. Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kishkindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita.

However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tara (wife of Vali) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Angada and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati (elder brother of Jatayu), that Sita was taken to Lanka.

''Sundara Kanda''

''Sundara Kanda'' forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's heroics. After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing a Gandharva Kanya who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Mainakudu who offers Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Hanuman refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sita.

After entering Lanka, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of Lanka. Hanuman fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lanka. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lanka nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanuman explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana.

Hanuman reassures Sita, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign that Rama is still alive. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramayana will not have significance if Hanuman carries her to Rama – "When Rama is not there Ravana carried Sita forcibly and when Ravana was not there, Hanuman carried Sita back to Rama". She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanuman her comb as a token to prove that she is still alive.

Hanuman takes leave of Sita. Before he leaves Lanka to go back to Rama and tell him of Sita's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lanka by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.

''Yuddha Kanda''

Also known as ''Lanka Kanda'', this book describes the war between the army of Rama and the army of Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The apes named Nala and Nila construct a floating bridge (known as Rama Setu) across the sea, using stones that floated on water because they had Rama's name written on them and one story also tells that they had been ''cursed'' by a sage that whatever they will throw in a water body will not sink rather it will float.

The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son Indrajit hurls a powerful weapon at Lakshmana, who is badly wounded. So Hanuman assumes a gigantic form and flies from Lanka to the Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sumeru, Hanuman was unable to identify the herb that could cure Lakshmana and so decided to bring the entire mountain back to Lanka. Eventually, the war ends when Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka.

On meeting Sita, Rama said, "the dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Ravana have been wiped off, by his victory over the enemy with the assistance of Hanuman, Sugreeva and Vibhishana". However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom, Rama disowns her and asks her to seek shelter elsewhere. Sita requests Lakshmana to prepare a pile of fire for her to enter. When Lakshmana prepares a pyre, Sita prays to the god Agni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from the burning pyre, carrying Sita in his arms and restores her to Rama, testifying to her purity. Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode of ''Agni Pariksha'' varies in the versions of ''Ramayana'' by Valmiki and Tulsidas. In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas, Sita was under the protection of Agni (see Maya Sita) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama.

''Uttara Kanda''

Considered by several scholars to be an interpolation to the original six chapters, this kanda narrates Rama's reign of Ayodhya, the birth of Lava and Kusha, the Ashvamedha yajna, and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called '' Rama-Rajya'' (a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied).

After hearing from his ministers that his subjects were unhappy with the fact that their king had chosen to recouncile with a woman who had lived in the house of another man, Rama is furious as Sita had proved to everyone she was pure through the agnipariksha. In order to uphold his rank as the champion of dharma, Sita, who was pregnant was sent to exile into the forest. She finds refuge in Sage Valmiki's ashram, where she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha. Meanwhile, Rama conducts an Ashvamedha yajna (A Vedic, royal assertion of sovereignty) and in absence of Sita, places a golden statue of her.

Lava and Kusha capture the horse (the vehicle of the yajna), and defeat the whole army of Ayodhya that had accompanied the horse. Later on, the brothers defeat Lakshmana, Bharata, Shatrughna, and other warriors and take Hanuman as prisoner. Finally, Rama himself arrives and defeats the two mighty brothers. Valmiki updates Sita about this development and advises both the brothers to go to Ayodhya and tell the story of Sita's sacrifice to the common folk. Both brothers arrive at Ayodhya, but face many difficulties while convincing the people. Hanuman helps both the brothers in this task.

At some point, Valmiki brings Sita forward. Seeing Sita, Rama is teary-eyed and realises that Lava and Kusha are his own sons. Nagarasen (one of the ministers who instigated the hatred towards Sita) challenges Sita's character and asks her to prove her purity. Sita is overwhelmed with emotion, and decides to go back to the Earth from where she emerged. She says that, "If I am pure, this earth will open and swallow me whole."

At that very moment, the earth opens up and swallows Sita. Rama rules Ayodhya for many years and finally takes Samadhi into Sarayu river along with his three brothers and leaves the world. He goes back to Vaikuntha in his Vishnu form (Lakshmana as Adishesha, Bharata as his conch, and Shatrughana as the Sudarshana Chakra) and meets Sita there, who by then had assumed her true form of Lakshmi.

Versions

As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the ''Ramayana'' survive. In particular, the ''Ramayana'' related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on ''Ramayana'' in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and Maldives.

India

There are diverse regional versions of the ''Ramayana'' written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents the epic without two of its kandas. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil, but references to Ramayana story appear in Tamil literature as early as 3rd century CE. A Telugu version, Ranganatha Ramayanam, was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 13th century.

The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali. Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' inspired Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as ''Tulsi-krita Ramayana''. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of the ''Ramayana'' in the 17th century. Akbar, the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother, Hamida Banu Begum

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