Life and career
Early years
Born on 8 April 1913 inBritish intelligence
During"I studied Zaehner's Personal File. He was responsible for MI6Zaehner continued in Iran until 1947 as press attaché in the British Embassy, and as ancounterintelligence Counterintelligence is an activity aimed at protecting an agency's intelligence program from an opposition's intelligence service. It includes gathering information and conducting activities to prevent espionage, sabotage, assassinations or ot ...in Persia during the war. It was difficult and dangerous work. The railway lines into Russia, carrying vital military supplies, were key targets for German sabotage. Zaehner was perfectly equipped for the job, speaking the local dialects fluently, and much of his time was spent undercover, operating in the murky and cutthroat world of countersabotage. By the end of the war his task was even more fraught. The Russians themselves were trying to gain control of the railway, and Zaehner had to work behind Russian lines, continuously at risk of betrayal and murder by pro-German or pro-Russian... ."
Oxford professor
Zaehner worked at the university until his death on 24 November 1974 in Oxford. " the age of sixty-one he fell down dead in the street on his way to Sunday evening Mass." The cause of death was a heart attack.University work
Before the war Zaehner had lectured atPeer descriptions
As a professor Zaehner "had a great facility for writing, and an enormous appetite for work… lsoa talent for friendship, a deep affection for a number of particular close friends and an appreciation of human personality, especially for anything bizarre or eccentric". Nonetheless, "he passed a great deal of his time alone, most of it in his study working." An American professor described Zaehner in a different light: "The small, birdlike Zaehner, whose rheumy, color-faded eyes darted about in a clay colored face, misted blue from the smoke ofHis writings
Zoroastrian studies
''Zurvan''
Initially Zaehner's reputation rested on his studies of''Teachings of the Magi''
''The Teachings of the Magi'' (1956) was Zaehner's second of three book on Zoroastrianism. It presented the "main tenets" of the religion in the Sasanid era, during the reign of''Dawn and Twilight''
In his ''The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism'' (1961), Zaehner adopted a chronological dichotomy. He first explores origins, the founding of the religion by its prophet Zoroaster. He notes that theArticles, chapters
Zaehner contributed other work regarding Zoroaster and the religion began in ancient Iran. The article "Zoroastrianism" was included in a double-columned book he edited, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths'', first published in 1959. Also were his several articles on the persistence in popular culture of the former national religion, "Zoroastrian survivals in Iranian folklore". Chapters, in whole or part, on Zoroastrianism appeared in a few of his other books: ''At Sundry Times'' (1958), aka ''The Comparison of Religions'' (1962); ''The Convergent Spirit'', aka ''Matter and Spirit'' (1963); and ''Concordant Discord'' (1970).Comparative religion
In addition to the two titles below, other works of Zaehner are comparative or have a significant comparative element. Among these are: ''Concordant Discord'' (1970), and ''Our Savage God'' (1974).Choice of perspective
In the west the academic field of comparative religion at its origins inherited an ' enlightenment' ideal of an objective, value-neutral, yet 'secular' rationalism. Traditional Christian and Jewish writings, however, initially provided much of the source material, as did"Any man with any convictions at all is liable to be influenced by them even when he tries to adopt an entirely objective approach; but let him recognize this from the outset and guard against it. If he does this, he will at least be less liable to deceive himself and others." "Of the books I have written some are intended to be objective; others, quite frankly, are not." "In all my writings on comparative religion my aim has been increasingly to show that there is a coherent pattern in religious history. For me the centre of coherence can only be Christ." Yet "I have rejected as irrelevant to my theme almost everything that would find a natural place in a theological seminary, that is,Accordingly, for his primary orientation Zaehner chose from among the active participants: Christianity in its Catholic manifestation. Yet the academic Zaehner also employed a type of comparative analysis, e.g., often drawing on Zoroastrian or Hindu, or Jewish or Islamic views for contrast, for insight. Often he combined comparison with a default 'modernist' critique, which included psychology or cultural evolution. Zaehner's later works are informed byChristian theology Christian theology is the theology of Christianity, Christian belief and practice. Such study concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theology, theologian ..., modern theology in particular." "For what, then, do I have sympathy, you may well ask. Quite simply, for the 'great religions' both of East and West, expressed... in those texts that each religion holds most sacred and in the impact that these have caused."
''At Sundry Times''
In his 1958 book ''At Sundry Times. An essay in the comparison of religions'', Zaehner came to grips with "the problem of how a Christian should regard the non-Christian religions and how, if at all, he could correlate them into his own" (p. 9 [Preface]). It includes an Introduction (1), followed by chapters on Hinduism (2), on Hinduism and Buddhism (3), on "Prophets outside Israel", i.e., Zoroastrianism and Islam (4), and it concludes with Appendix which compares and contrasts the "Quran and Christ". Perhaps the key chapter is "Consummatum Est" (5), which "shows, or tries to show, how the main trend in [mystical] Hinduism and Buddhism on the one hand and of [the prophetic] Zoroastrianism on the other meet and complete each other in the Christian revelation" (Preface, p. 9, words in brackets added). The book opens with a lucid statement of his own contested hermeneutic: "with comparative religion," he says, "the question is who's to be master, that's all" (p. 9). He starts by saluting E. O. James. Next Zaehner mentions Rudolph Otto (1869-1937) and al-Ghazali (1058-1111) as both being skeptics about any 'reasonable' writer with no religious experience who expounds on the subject. Here Zaehner acknowledges that many Christians may only be familiar with their own type of religion (similar to Judaism and Islam), and hence be ill-equipped to adequately comprehend Hindu or Buddhist mysticism (pp. 12–15). Zaehner then compared the Old Testament and the Buddha, the former being a history of God's commandments delivered by his prophets to the Jewish people and their struggle to live accordingly, and the later being a teacher of a path derived from his own experience, which leads to a spiritual enlightenment without God and apart from historical events (pp. 15–19, 24–26). Needed is a way to bridge this gap between these two (pp. 15, 19, 26, 28). The gap is further illustrated as it relates to desire and suffering (p. 21), body and soul (pp. 22–23), personality and death (pp. 23–24). He announced a 'method' special to the book: "I shall concern myself with what sincere men have believed" (p. 29).''Christianity & other Religions''
The 1964 book, following its introduction, has four parts: India, China and Japan, Islam, and The Catholic Church. Throughout Zaehner offers connections between the self-understanding of 'other religions' and that of the Judeo-Christian, e.g., theMystical experience
Scholarly approaches of mysticism, Mysticism as an academic field of study is relatively recent, emerging from earlier works with a religious and literary accent. From reading the writings of mystics, various traditional distinctions have been further elaborated, such as its psychological nature and its social-cultural context. Discussions have also articulated its phenomenology as a personal experience versus how it has been interpreted by the mystic or by others. Zaehner made his contributions, e.g., to its comparative analysis and its typology.''Sacred and Profane''
After Zaehner's initial works on Zoroastrianism, ''Mysticism. Sacred and Profane'' (1957) was his first published on another subject. It followed his assumption of the Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics, Spalding chair at''Hindu and Muslim''
His innovative 1960 book compares the mystical literature and practice ofComparative mysticism
In his work on comparative religion, Zaehner directly addressed mysticism, particularly in Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. He criticized the then widely-held view that in mystical experience was to be found the key to the unity of all religions. He based his contrary views on well-known texts authored by the mystics of various traditions. Zaehner, after describing their first-hand reports of experiences of extraordinary states of consciousness, presented also their traditional interpretations. The result seems to indicate a great variety of mystical experience, and clear differences in how these were understood theologically. Many experiences seems to evidence a particular world view, e.g., theisms, monisms, dualisms, pantheisms, or agnostic. His critique challenged the thesis of Richard Bucke, developed in his 1901 book, ''Cosmic Consciousness''. Bucke describes certain lesser facilities, followed by accounts of the prized 'cosmic' state of mind. Fourteen exemplary people of history as presented, shown as each reaching a somewhat similar realization: the plane of cosmic consciousness. This idea, called the Perennial philosophy, has been variously advanced, e.g., by Aldous Huxley, by Frithjof Schuon, by Houston Smith. Zaehner does not dispute that these spiritual visionaries reach a distinguishable level of awareness. Nor does he deny that by following a disciplined life sequence over time one may be led to mystical experience: withdrawal, Ego death, purgation, illumination. Instead, what Zaeher suggests is a profound difference between, e.g., the pantheistic vision of a nature mystic, admittedly pleasant and wholesome, and the personal union of a theist with the Divine lover of humankind.Gender: Soul & Spirit
Zaehner's study of mystical writings also incorporated its psychological dimensions, yet as a supplement, not as definitive. About the experience of unusual states of consciousness, many mystics have written using as a descriptive metaphor language associated with marriage symbolism or sexuality. Abrahamic religions traditionally identify the gender of the supreme Being as male. In Islam and in Christianity, the soul of the often male sufi or mystic, following his spiritual discipline, may encounter the holy presence of the male Deity. The Christian Church as a whole, as a community of souls, for millennia has been self-described as the Bride of Christ. Across centuries and continents, mystics have used erotic metaphors and sexual analogies in descriptions of Divine love. The special states of consciousness they recorded have become the subject of modern psychological studies, e.g., by the school of C. G. Jung (often favored by Zaehner). Among Christian mystics Teresa of Avila, Teresa de Jesús (1515-1582) employed the Mystical marriage, spiritual marriage metaphor in writing about her experiences. Mechthild of Magdeburg, Mechthild von Magdeburg (c.1208-1282/1294) provides a special example of the woman mystic. Along with other authors, Zaehner writes of the mystics' marriage symbolism and erotic imagery. He quotes an exemplary passage of Francis de Sales, François de Sales (1567-1622), then continues:"Both in mystical rapture and in sexual union reason and intelligence are momentarily set at naught. The soul 'flows' and 'hurls itself out of itself'. ...all consciousness of the ego has disappeared. As the Buddhist would say, there is no longer any 'I' or 'mine', the ego has been swallowed up into a greater whole."Yet, when approaching this delicate subject, especially at the chaotic threshold to a Gender and sexuality studies, New Age, the rapid changes afoot may confound Sexology, sex talk and conflate opposites, which elicits diverse commentary. Regarding the transcultural experience of mystical states, however, the traditional analogy of marriage symbolism continues to endure, drawing interest and advocates. Augmenting the above examples is the Dutch mystic Jan van Ruusbroec (1239-1381). Zaehner evolved into a committed Christian, whose ethics and morals were founded on his Catholic faith. Accordingly, sexuality is blessed within the context of marriage. His sexual orientation before and during World War II was said to have been homosexual. During his later life, while a University don, don at Oxford, he became wholly devoted to teaching, research and writing; he abstained from sexual activity.
Typology of mysticism
In 1958, Zaehner presented a general analysis of the range of Scholarly approaches to mysticism, mystical experience in the form of a typology. S. N. Dasgupta, Dasgupta was a source, which Zaehner modified, truncated and refashioned. The resulting schema of the typology aimed to reflect both the mystic's report of the experience itself and the mystic's personal 'explanation' of it. Commentaries by others found in traditional spiritual literature (spanning centuries) were also referenced. The 'explanations' usually drew the mystic's religious heritage. Of the various typologies suggested by Zaehner, the following has been selected here. *(1) Nature mystics, e.g., secular 'oceanic'; *(2) Isolation, interpreted as either: ** Dualist, e.g., Samkhya-Yogin, or ** Monistic, e.g., Advaita vedanta, non-dualist Vedanta; *(3) Theistic, e.g., Abrahamic religions. An endemic problem with such an analytic typology is the elusive nature of the conscious experience during the mystical state, its shifting linguistic descriptions and perspectives of subject/object, and the psychology of spiritual awareness itself. In addition, each type category is hardly pure, in that there is a great variety of overlap between them. Furthermore, each religion appears to field contending schools of mystical thought, and often interpretations of subtle conscious states may differ within each of the schools. When a list of the several proposed typologies suggested by Zaehner over the years are mustered and compared, Fernandes found the results "unstable". Accordingly, an observer might conclude that the spiritual map of possible mysticisms would present a confused jumble through which snake perplexing pathways, difficult of analysis. Zaehner's proposals suffer from such endemic difficulties. ''Nota bene'': Kripal remarks that Zaehner is known for a "tripartite typology of mystical states". However here four types are discussed. Zaehner's "Isolation" composite is divided in its two components: the Dualist, and the Monistic. These two types may be deemed functionally equivalent, yet as self-defined the Monistic experience (of Advaita Vedanta, Vedanta) is not an isolated event but instead is connected to the cosmic unity.Nature mysticism
Nature mysticism is a term used to catalogue generally those spontaneous experiences of an ''oceanic feeling'' in which a person identifies with nature, or is similarly thrown back in awe of the unforgettable, vast sweep of the cosmos. Such may be described philosophically as a form of pantheism, or often as Panentheism, pan-en-hen-ic. Nature mysicism may also include such a state of consciousness induced by drugs. Like Aldous Huxley he had takenDualism, e.g., Samkhya
Samkhya philosophy is an ancient dualism (Indian philosophy), dualist doctrine of India. In appraising the experienced world, Samkhya understood it as composed largely of prakrti (nature, mostly unconscious exterior matter, but also inner elements of human life not immortal), and purusa (the human soul aware). Its dualism generally contrasts the 'objectively' seen (prakriti) and the subjective seer (purusa). Long ago Yoga adherents adopted doctrines of Samkhya. As a person pursues his spiritual quest under Samkhya-yoga, his ''immortal'' soul (purusa) emerges, becomes more and more defined and distinct, as it separates from entangling nature (prakriti). Prakriti includes even the nature affecting personal qualities, such as the three gunas (modes), the ''buddhi'' (universal intellect), the mind (''manas''), ''the body'', the ahamkara (the ego): all of which the purusa sheds. Of the resulting refined and purified ''purusa'' there is yielded the eternity of the yogin's true Self in isolation. An advanced mystic may attain a recurrent state of tranquil, steady illumination in meditative isolation. The Samkhya understands this as the benign emergence within the practicing yogin of his own purified, immortal ''purusa''. A plurality of purusas exist, as many as there are people. A mystic's own ''purusa'' generally is about identical to the many other isolated purusas, each separately experienced from within, by millions of other humans. Under the Samkhya, Hindus may refer to this personal, isolated experience of immortality as the purified self, the ''purusa'', or otherwise called the personal Atman (Hinduism), atman (Sanskrit: self). ''Au contraire'', a Hindu mystic following a rival school of Vedanta may understand the same tranquil, steady illumination differently (i.e., as not Samkhya's purusa). As Zaehner proposed: the same or similar mystical experience may result in very different theological interpretations. Instead of the isolated purusa experience of Samkhya, the Advaita Vedanta mystic might interpret it as the experience of the Self, which illuminates the mystic's direct connection to the all-inclusive entity of ''cosmic totality''. Such a numinous, universal Self is called Brahman (''Monism, e.g., Vedanta
In non-dualist Vedanta, the Hindu mystic would understand ''reality'' as nothing but the Divine Unity, inclusive of the mystic subject herself. A special, awesome, impersonal ''Presence'' may be experienced as universal totality. The persistent Hindu, after years of prescriptive discipline to purge her soul, may discover an inner stream of Being, the Brahman, in which she herself is encompassed like wet in the sea. Such a transformative consciousness of spiritual energy emits eternities of bliss. What is called 'nature' (prakriti in Samkhya), philosophically, does not exist, according to the Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara, Sankara (c. 7th century). The objective 'other' is ultimately an illusion or Maya (religion), maya. A realized person's antaratma or inner self is directly identical with the paramatma, the Supreme Soul or Brahman. As the ''Upanishads'' states to the seeker, "thou art that", Tat Tvam Asi, i.e., the personal atma ''is'' the divine Atma. What Samkhya darsana mistakes for an isolated purusa (self) is really the Brahman: the whole of the universe; all else is illusion. Brahma is Satcitananda, being, consciousness, bliss. Zaehner's typology often focused for comparative articulation on some Hindu forms of mysticism, i.e., the Astika of the dualist Samkhya and of the non-dualist Vedanta, and Sankara versus Ramanuja distinctions. Not addressed independently in this context were other forms of mysticism, e.g., the Theravada, the Mahayana, Chan Buddhism. The non-dualist finds a complete unity within a subjective sovereignty: ultimately absorption in a ''numinous'' presence, the absolute. Constituted is a meditative perception of an all-encompassing "we" absent any hint of "they". ''Au contraire'' the Samkhya dualist understands that in his transcendent meditation he will begin to perceive his own emergent Self as an isolated ''purusa'', in process of being purified from enmeshment in a nonetheless existing 'objective' prakrti. Despite the profound difference, Zaehner understands each as in some sense acquired in isolation. The two direct mystical experiences as found in Hindu literature Zaehner endeavors to present competently, as well as to introduce the framing theological filters used for explanation.Theism, e.g., Christian
Theistic mysticism is common to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Hinduism also includes its own traditions of theistic worship with a mystical dimension. Ramanuja (11th-12th century) articulated this theological schema, Vishishtadvaita, which departs from the Advaita Vedanta of Sankara (see above section). According to Zaehner, Christianity and theistic religions offer the possibility of a sacred mystical union with an attentive creator God, whereas a strictly monistic approach instead leads to the self-unity experience of natural religion. Yet Zaehner remained hopeful in the long run of an ever-increasing understanding between religions. "We have much to learn from Eastern religions, and we have much too to give them; but we are always in danger of forgetting the art of giving--of giving without strings... ." Mystical union between the mystic and the Deity in a sense confounds the distinction between dualistic and monistic mysticism. For if the two are identical already, there is no potential for the act of union. Yet the act of divine union also negates a continuous dualism. During the 1940s spent in Iran he returned to the Christian faith. Decades later he published ''The Roman Catholic Church, Catholic Church and World Religions'' (1964), expressly from that perspective. As an objective scholar, he drew on his acquired insights from this source to further his understanding of others. Zaehner "did not choose to write to convince others of the truth of his own faith," rather "to frame questions" was his usual purpose.Hindu studies
His translations and the ''Hinduism'' book "made Zaehner one of the most important modern exponents of Hindu theological and philosophical doctrines... . The works on mysticism are more controversial though they established important distinctions in refusing to regard all mysticisms as the same," wrote Prof. Geoffrey Parrinder. For Zaehner's ''Hindu and Muslim Mysticism'' (1960), and like analyses, see "Comparative Mysticism" section.''Hinduism''
While an undergraduate at Christ Church in Oxford, Zaehner studied several Persian languages. He also taught himself a related language,Yudhishthira
Zaehner continued his discussion of Yudhishthira in a chapter from his Gifford Lectures. Analogies appear to connect the Mahabharata's Yudhishthira and the biblical Job (biblical figure), Job. Yet their situations differed. Yudhishthira, although ascetic by nature, was a royal leader who had to directly face the conflicts of his society. His realm and his family suffered great misfortunes due to political conflict and war. Yet the divine Krishna evidently considered the war and the destructive duties of the warrior (the ''kshatriya dharma'') acceptable. The wealthy householder Job, a faithful servant of his Deity, suffers severe family and personal reversals, due to Divine acquiescence. Each human being, both Job and Yudhishthira, is committed to following his righteous duty, acting in conformity to his conscience. When the family advisor Vidura reluctantly challenges him to play dice at Dhritarashtra, Dhrtarastra's palace, "Yudhishthira believes it is against his moral code to decline a challenge." Despite, or because of, his devotion to the law of ''dharma'', Yudhishthira then "allowed himself be tricked into a game of dice." In contesting against very cunning and clever players, he gambles "his kingdom and family away." His wife becomes threatened with slavery. Even so, initially Yudhishthira with "holy indifference" tries to "defend traditional dharma" and like Job to "justify the ways of God in the eyes of men." Yet his disgraced wife Draupadi dramatically attacks Krishna for "playing with his creatures as children play with dolls." Although his wife escapes slavery, the bitter loss in the dice game is only a step in the sequence of seemingly divinely-directed events that led to a disastrous war, involving enormous slaughter. Although Yudhishthira is the King of Dharma, eventually he harshly criticizes the bloody duties of a warrior (the Hindu caste, caste dharma of the kshatriya), duties imposed also on kings. Yudhishthira himself prefers the "constant virtues" mandated by the dharma of a brahmin. "Krishna represents the old order," interprets Zaehner, where "trickery and violence" hold "an honorable place".Translations
In his ''Hindu Scriptures'' (1966) Zaehner translates ancient sacred texts, his selections of the Rig-Veda, the Atharva-Veda, theSri Aurobindo
In his 1971 book ''Evolution in Religion'', Zaehner discusses Sri Aurobindo Ghose (1872–1950), a modern Hindu spiritual teacher, and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955), a French palaeontologist and Jesuit visionary. Zaehner discusses each, and appraises their religious innovations. Aurobindo at age seven was sent to England for education, eventually studying western classics at Cambridge University. On his return to Bengal in India, he studied its Sanskrit literature, ancient literature in Sanskrit. He later became a major political orator with a spiritual dimension, a Political history of Sri Aurobindo, prominent leader for Indian independence. Hence he was jailed. There in 1908 he had a religious experience. Relocating to the then French port of Pondicherry, he became a yogin and was eventually recognized as a Hindu sage. Sri Aurobindo's writings reinterpret the Hindu traditions."[A] change in consciousness radical and complete" of no less a jump in "spiritual evolution" than "what took place when a mentalised being first appeared in a vital and material animal world." Regarding his new ''Integral Yoga'': "The thing to be gained is the bringing in of a Power of Consciousness... not yet organized or active directly in earth-nature, ...but yet to be organized and made directly active."Aurobindo foresaw that a Supermind (integral yoga), Power of Consciousness will eventually work a collective transformation in each human being, inviting us as a specie then to actually be able to form and sustain societies of liberté, égalité, fraternité. "It must be remembered that there is Aurobindo the socialist and Aurobindo the mystic." Adherents of Aurobindo's new Integral Yoga (''Purna Yoga'') seek to lead India to a spiritual awakening, by facilitating an increasingly common soul-experience, in which each person achieves a mystic union with the One. Such a ''gnosis'' would be guided by the Power of Consciousness. In choosing to pursue the spiritual realization of social self-understanding, India would hasten the natural evolution of humanity. Hence furthering the conscious commitment everywhere, to collaborate with the hidden drive of creative evolution toward a spiritual advance, is high among the missions of Aurobindo's new 'Integral Yoga'.
Gifford lecture at St Andrews
Zaehner gave theSocial ideology and ethics
A militant state cult
Zaehner used a comparative-religion approach in his several discussions of Communism, both as philosophical-religious theory (discussed below), and here in its practical business running a sovereign state. In its ideological management of political and economic operations, Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Soviet party rule was sometimes said to demonstrate an attenuated resemblance to Catholic Church governance. Features in common included an authoritarian command structure (similar to the military), guided by a revered theory (or dogma), which was articulated in abstract principles and exemplars that could not be questioned. For the Marxist-Leninist adherent, the 'laws of nature', i.e., dialectical materialism, was the orthodox, mandatory scientism. It dominated the political economy of society through its application, historical materialism. Accordingly, a complex dialectic involving class conflict provided a master key to these "natural" laws, however difficult to decipher."Joseph Stalin, Stalin saw, quite rightly, that since the laws of Nature manifested themselves in the tactical vicissitudes of day-to-day politics with no sort of clarity, even the most orthodox Marxists were bound to go astray. It was, therefore, necessary that some one man whose authority was absolute, should be found to pronounce ''ex cathedra'' what the correct reading of historical necessity was. Such a man he found in himself."A Soviet Union, Soviet hierarchical system thus developed during the Stalinist era, which appeared to be a perverse copy of the organization of the Roman Catholic Church. Zaehner did not overlook the deadly, hideous atrocities, whether Holodomor, episodic in the millions or merely Gulag, continuously sadistic, perpetrated during Stalin's rule, chiefly on his own overworked citizenry. Zaehner, however, did not further pursue the Leninist party's monopoly of state power. Instead, what perplexed him were other aspects of Marx and Engels: the artful pitch able to inspire popular motivation, its putative visionary import and quasi-religious dimensions that could attract the interest of free peoples.
Dialectical materialism
Marxism, Marxist ideology has been compared to religious theology, perhaps its original source. Zaehner explored its explicitly ''materialist'' perspective, an ancient philosophical view further developed post-Hegel, then adopted by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As a result, Georg W. F. Hegel, Hegel's idealist system of dialectics was turned 'downside up'. Zaehner's experience in espionage andCultural evolution
The interaction of Neo-Darwinism, evolutionary science and of social studies with traditional religions thought, particularly Christian, drew Zaehner's attention. Serving him as a catalyst were the writings on evolution by Teilhard de Chardin, and on mescaline by Aldous Huxley. Engendered is the mystical body of Christ as an active symbol of transformation, Christianity as a soul collective, which carries "the promise of sanctification to the material world re-created by man." The physical potential in inorganic ''matter'', according to Teilhard, 'spontaneously' develops into life organisms that reproduce, then such living ''matter'' eventually evolves consciousness, until ''eons hence'' a Christology, Christological collective ''Omega Point'' will be reached. The issue of such a future humanity-wide salvation on earth, in juxtaposition to the orthodox salvation of each individual confirmed at death, is apprehended and discussed. While energized and often favorable, Zaehner could turn a more critical eye toward Teilhard, while acknowledging his advocacy for the poor. Juxtaposing (1) a spiritual understanding of graphic biblical stories, often from Book of Genesis, Genesis, that illuminate the human choices and conflicts, with (2) a conjectured historical narrative of early human society, Zaehner would then employ psychology and literature to craft an anthropology of religion, anthropology of modern social norms, within a spiritual commentary. In a few different books Zaehner retold in several versions the 'simple' story of the Garden of Eden. Adam and Eve start in an unconscious state, analogous to prehistoric human beings. They remain unaware of good or evil, unconscious of sin. Tasting the forbidden fruit, however, of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil, tree of knowledge, offered by the Serpents in the Bible, serpent, opens their eyes. This their original sin results in their awakening. They are naked in the garden, they must leave it. Once unconsciously they enjoyed the free bounty of nature, but now they must work for a living and create a Fall of man, fallen human society to live in. Zaehner writes:The discovery of evolution hit the Christian churches hard... . e ''Genesis'' story has to be interpreted against the background of our evolutionary origin. Once we do this, then the Fall begins to look more like an ascent than a degradation. For self-consciousness which transforms man into a ''rational'' animal is a qualitative leap in the evolutionary process... life becomes conscious of itself.In the multiple discussions referenced above, Zaehner is referring to the long-term cultural evolution of human societies, which happens in the wake of the billion-year biological evolution by natural selection. Of the later our bodies are heirs. Of the former our consciousness takes the lead. Sri Aurobindo, the subject of another book by Zaehner, advocated a disciplined commitment of the spirit, informed by yoga, to advancing the cultural evolution of the species.
'New Age' drug culture
In his last three books, ''Drugs, Mysticism and Makebelieve'' (1972), ''Our Savage God'' (1974), and ''City within the Heart'' (1981) [posthumous], Zaehner turned to address issues in contemporary society, drawing on his studies of comparative religion. He further explored the similarities and the differences between drug-induced experiences and traditional mysticism. As an academic he had already published several books on such issues starting in 1957. In the meantime, a widespread counterculture had arisen, often called New Age, which included artists, rebels, and youth. Their psychedelic experiences were often self-explained spiritually, with reference to zen and eastern mysticism. Consequently, Zaehner wanted to reach this "wider public". During the late 1960s he was "very often invited to talk on the=''Drugs, Mysticism''
= As its title indicates, the book addresses a range of contemporary issues. It was expanded from three talks he gave on=''Our Savage God''
= The book's title is somewhat misleading. It attaches well, however, to its first chapter, "Rot in the Clockwork Orange", about the putative rationale of then contemporary episodes of mayhem and murder. About the Charles Manson, hippie psychotic fringe, it made world headlines. Zaehner's focus is not on usual criminality but on hideous acts claiming a religious sanction, that with sinister cunning fakes the 'new age' (p. 12). The chapter's title refers to A Clockwork Orange (novel), the 1962 novel by Anthony Burgess and A Clockwork Orange (film), the 1971 film by Stanley Kubrick (p. 35). Portrayed therein is crazy, soul-killing violence. Yet, very differently, about his book on the whole Zaehner says its hero is Aristotle. The supporting cast is drawn from his "philosophical milieu" (p. 14). The next four chapters cover: Heraclitus per a dialectical unity of opposites (pp. 92, 102); Parmenides whose ''Way of Truth'' is compared to the Vedanta's Brahman (121-122); Plato (141-160); and the Stagira (ancient city), stagirite hero who arrives at Being, akin to ''Satcitananda, Sat-Cit-Ananda'' (p. 192). As indicated, Zaehner offers a comparison of these Ancient Greek philosophers to the Vedic wisdom of ancient India, especially the Mythopoeic thought, mythopoetic element in the ''Quotations
*There is indeed a sharp division between those religions whose characteristic form of religious experience is prayer and adoration of Blaise Pascal, Pascal's God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob on the one hand, and religions in which sitting postures designed to find the Dharmic religions, God within you are thought to be the most appropriate way of approaching the Deity. *C. G. Jung, Jung has done in the twentieth century A.D. what the Hindus did in perhaps the eighth century B.C.; he has discovered empirically the existence of an immortal soul in man, dwelling outside time and space, which can actually be experienced. This soul Jung, like the Hindus, calls the "self"... [which is] extremely difficult to describe in words. Hence his "self" is as hard to grasp as the Indian ''Ātman (Hinduism), atman''. *One quite arresting resemblance between Zoroastrianism and Christianity remains to be noticed. This is the Haoma sacrifice and sacrament which seems to foreshadow the Catholic Mass in so strange a way. ... e Haoma rite with partially fermented juice became the central act of Zoroastrian worship... . *The whole ascetic tradition, whether it be Buddhist, Platonist, Manichaean, Christian or Islamic, springs from that most polluted of all sources, the Satanic sin of pride, the desire to be 'like gods'. We are not gods, we are social, irrational animals, designed to become rational, social animals, and finally, having built our house on solid Aristotelian rock, to become 'like a god', our work well done. *Few Catholics are now proud of the Sack of Constantinople, the Albigensian Crusade, the Inquisition, or the Religious war, Wars of Religion, nor... the Crusades. It has taken us a long time to realize that we cannot... remove the mote from our brother's eye without first getting rid of the beam in our own. *True, the human phylum did not split up into separate subspecies as has been the case with other animal species, but it did split up into different religions and cultures, each having its own particular flavour, and each separated from the rest. With the outpouring of the Holy Spirit... the scattering of man which is symbolised by the Tower of Babel comes to an end: the Church of Christ is born and the symbol of unity and union is found. *Aristotle claimed to have known God 'for a short time' only, but that was enough. He was never so immodest as to claim that he had known the ''Truth'', for he knew that this is reserved for God alone.See also
*Comparative religion *History of religions *Religious studies *Notes
Bibliography
Zaehner's works
*''Foolishness to the Greeks.'' Oxford University, 1953 (pamphlet). Reprint: Descale de Brouwer, Paris, 1974. As Appendix in ''Concordant Discord'' (1970), pp. 428–443. *''Zurvan. A Zoroastrian Dilemma''. Oxford University, 1955. Reprint: Biblio and Tannen, New York, 1972. *''The Teachings of the Magi. A compendium of Zoroastrian beliefs''. George Allen & Unwin, London, 1956. Reprints: Sheldon Press, 1972; Oxford, 1976. Translation: **''Il Libro del Consiglio di Zarathushtra e altri testi. Compendio delle teorie zoroastriane.'' Astrolabio Ubaldini, Roma, 1976. *''Mysticism: Sacred and Profane''. Clarendon Press, Oxford University, 1957, reprint 1961. Translations: **''Mystik, religiös und profan''. Ernst Klett, Stuttgart, 1957. **''Mystiek sacraal en profaan''. De Bezige Bij, Amsterdam, 1969. **''Mystique sacrée, Mystique profane''. Editorial De Rocher, Monaco, 1983. *''At Sundry Times. An essay in the comparison of religions''. Faber & Faber, London, 1958. Alternate title, and translation: **''The Comparison of Religions''. Beacon Press, Boston, 1962. **''Inde, Israël, Islam: religions mystiques et révelations prophétiques''. Desclée de Brouwer, Paris, 1965. *''Hindu and Muslim Mysticism''. Athlone Press, University of London, 1960. Reprints: Schocken, New York, 1969; Oneworld, Oxford, 1994. *''The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism''. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1961. Translation: **''Zoroaster e la fantasia religiosa''. Il Saggiatore, Milano, 1962. *''Hinduism''. Oxford University Press, London, 1962. Translations: **''Der Hinduismus. Seine geschichte und seine lehre''. Goldman, München, 1964. **''L'Induismo''. Il Mulino, Bologna, 1972. **''L'hindouisme''. Desclée de Brouwer, Paris, 1974. *''The Convergent Spirit. Towards a dialectics of Religion.'' Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1963. Alternate title: **''Matter and Spirit. Their convergence in Eastern Religions, Marx, and Teilhard de Chardin''. Harper & Row, New York, 1963. *''The Catholic Church and World Religions''. Burns & Oates, London, 1964. Alternate title, and translation: **''Christianity and other Religions.'' Hawthorn Books, New York, 1964. **''El Cristianismo y les grandes religiones de Asia''. Editorial Herder, Barcelona, 1967. *''Concordant Discord. The Interdependence of Faiths.'' Clarendon Press, Oxford University, 1970.Criticism, commentary
A Zaehner bibliography is in Fernandes (pp. 327–346). ;Books *Albano Fernandes, ''The Hindu Mystical Experience: A comparative philosophical study of the approaches of R. C. Zaehner & Bede Griffiths.'' Intercultural Pub., New Delhi 2004. *George Kizhakkemury, ''The Converging Point. An appraisal of Professor R. C. Zaehner's approach to Islamic mysticism.'' Alwaye MCBS, New Delhi 1982. *William Lloyd Newell, ''Struggle and Submission: R. C. Zaehner on Mysticisms.'' University Press of America, Washington 1981, foreword by Gregory Baum. *John Paul Reardon, ''A Theological Analysis of R. C. Zaehner's Theory of Mysticism.'' Dissertation at Fordham University, New York 2012. *Richard Charles Schebera, ''Christian and Non-Christian Dialogue. The vision of R. C. Zaehner.'' University Press of America, Washington 1978. *Kaikhushru Dhunjibhoy Sethna, K. D. Sethna, ''The Spirituality of the Future: A search apropos of R. C. Zaehner's study in Sri Aurobindo and in Teilhard De Chardin.'' Fairleigh Dickinson University, Teaneck 1981. *S. I. Sudiarja, ''The idea of God in Hinduism according to professor R. C. Zaehner''. Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Roma 1991). **Jeffrey John Kripal, ''Roads of Excess, Palaces of Wisdom.'' University of Chicago 2001. Chapter III "Doors of Deception" (pp. 156–198) on Zaehner. **Shri Krishna Saksena, Essays on Indian Philosophy. University of Hawaii Prss, Honolulu 1970. Chapter (pp. 102–116) on Zaehner. **Michael Stoeber, ''Theo-Monistic Mysticism. A Hindu-Christian comparison'' St. Martin's, New York 1994). Esp. Chapter 5 "Theo-Monistic Hierarchy" (pp. 87–112) references Zaehner. ;Articles *Carlo Cereti, "Zaehner, Robert Charles" in Ehsan Yarshater, editor, ''Encyclopaedia Iranica''. *Robert D. Hughes, "Zen, Zurvan, and Zaehner: A Memorial Tribute... " in ''Studies in Religion'' 6: 139-148 (1976-1977). *Ann Lambton, Ann K. S. Lambton, "Robert Charles Zaehner" in ''B.School of Oriental and African Studies, S.O.A.S.'' 38/3: 623–624 (London 1975). * *Geoffrey Parrinder, "Robert Charles Zaehner (1913–1974)" in ''History of Religions (journal), History of Religions'' 16/1: 66–74 (Univ.of Chicago 1976). *A. W. Sadler, "Zaehner-Huxley debate", in ''Journal of Religious Thought'', v. 21/1 (1964), pp. 43–50. *F. Whaling, "R. C. Zaehner: A Critique" in ''The Journal of Religious Studies'' 10: 77-118 (1982). **External links
* R. C. Zaehner