Proto-Tibeto-Burman (commonly abbreviated PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the

Tibeto-Burman languages The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non- Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people sp ...

, that is, the

Sino-Tibetan languages Sino-Tibetan, also cited as Trans-Himalayan in a few sources, is a family of more than 400 languages, second only to Indo-European in number of native speakers. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 billion native speakers of Chinese languages. ...

, except for Chinese. An initial reconstruction was produced by

Paul K. Benedict Paul King Benedict (; July 5, 1912 – July 21, 1997) was an American anthropologist, mental health professional, and linguist who specialized in languages of East and Southeast Asia. He is well known for his 1942 proposal of the Austro-Tai ...

and since refined by James Matisoff. Several other researchers argue that the Tibeto-Burman languages ''sans'' Chinese do not constitute a

monophyletic group A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...

within Sino-Tibetan, and therefore that Proto-Tibeto-Burman was the same language as

Proto-Sino-Tibetan Proto-Sino-Tibetan (PST) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Sino-Tibetan language family and the common ancestor of all languages in it, most prominently the Chinese languages, the Tibetan language, Yi, Bai, Burmese, Karen, Tangut, ...

Issues

Reconstruction is complicated by the immense diversity of the languages, many of which are poorly described, the lack of

inflection In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and ...

in most of the languages, and millennia of intense contact with other Sino-Tibetan languages and languages of other families. Only a few subgroups, such as Lolo-Burmese, have been securely reconstructed. Benedict's method, which he dubbed "teleo-reconstruction", was to compare widely separated languages, with a particular emphasis on

Classical Tibetan Classical Tibetan refers to the language of any text written in Tibetic after the Old Tibetan period. Though it extends from the 12th century until the modern day, it particularly refers to the language of early canonical texts translated from ot ...

, Jingpho, Written Burmese,

Garo Garo may refer to: People and languages * Garo people, a tribal people in India ** Garo language, the language spoken by the Garo tribe Places * Kingdom of Garo, a former kingdom in southern Ethiopia * Garo, Colorado * Garo Hills, part of the Ga ...

, and Mizo. Although the initial consonants of cognates tend to have the same

place Place may refer to: Geography * Place (United States Census Bureau), defined as any concentration of population ** Census-designated place, a populated area lacking its own municipal government * "Place", a type of street or road name ** Often ...

and manner of articulation, voicing and aspiration are often unpredictable. Matisoff attributes this to the effects of prefixes that have been lost and are often unrecoverable. The reconstruction also features "allofams", variant forms of a root postulated to explain inconsistent reflexes in daughter languages. The reconstruction of such "allofams" has been heavily criticized by other researchers in the field.

Homeland

Contrary to other hypotheses suggesting a Proto-Sino-Tibetan homeland in the

Yellow River The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: , Mandarin: ''Huáng hé'' ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the sixth-longest river system in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Ha ...

valley of northern China, Matisoff (1991, 2015) suggests that the Proto-Sino-Tibetan (PST) homeland was located "somewhere on the Himalayan plateau," and gives Proto-Tibeto-Burman a date of approximately 4000 B.C., which is roughly on a par with the age of

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo- ...

. Language diversification occurred as speakers then moved downstream through various river valleys.

Phonology

The phonology of Proto-Tibeto-Burman here is from Matisoff's 2003 reconstruction, much of which is based on Benedict's earlier reconstructions.

Consonants

Proto-Tibetan–Burman has at least 23 consonants (Matisoff 2003:15). Some descendants of Proto-Tibetan–Burman, especially the Qiangic languages, have developed dozens of sibilant fricatives and affricates. Proto-Tibeto-Burman, in Matisoff's opinion, also has many final nasals, stops, and liquids.

Vowels

In Matisoff's reconstruction, Proto-Tibeto-Burman vowels can be split into primary and secondary sets. Modern-day Tibeto-Burman languages have anywhere from five vowels (Written Tibetan and Jingpho) to dozens of monophthongs and diphthongs (

Loloish The Loloish languages, also known as Yi in China and occasionally Ngwi or Nisoic, are a family of fifty to a hundred Sino-Tibetan languages spoken primarily in the Yunnan province of China. They are most closely related to Burmese and its relat ...

and Qiangic languages) (Matisoff 2003:157). Matisoff (2003) also notes that languages which have greatly simplified or eliminated final consonants tend to have more vowels. The

open front unrounded vowel The open front unrounded vowel, or low front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. It is one of the eight primary cardinal vowels, not directly intended to correspond to a vowel sound of a specific language b ...

*a is by far the most common and stable vowel in Tibeto-Burman languages. Matisoff (2003) reinterprets diphthongs from Paul Benedict's reconstruction as long vowels.

Preservation of stops

According to Matisoff, Sino-Tibetan languages go through a series of four stages in which final stops and nasals gradually decay (Matisoff 2003:238-239). #The six final stops and nasals, *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, *-ŋ, are all intact. Written Tibetan, Lepcha, Kanauri, Garo, and Cantonese are currently on this stage. #One or more final consonants have been reduced or dropped. In Jingpho and Nung, the velars (*-k) are replaced by glottal stops (-ʔ), while in other languages they are completely dropped. In

Mandarin Chinese Mandarin (; ) is a group of Chinese (Sinitic) dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese, the official language ...

, all final stops are dropped, and *-m has merged with *-n. #All finals stops become glottal stops or constrictions (such as creaky voices), and final nasals may be replaced by nasality in the preceding consonant. Languages currently in this stage include modern Burmese and Lahu. #There are no glottal or nasal traces of the former final consonants left in the syllables.

Syntax

Proto-Tibeto-Burman was a verb-final ( subject–object–verb or SOV) language. Most modern-day Tibeto-Burman branches also display SOV word order. However, due to syntactic convergence within the

Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area The Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area is a sprachbund including languages of the Sino-Tibetan, Hmong–Mien (or Miao–Yao), Kra–Dai, Austronesian and Austroasiatic families spoken in an area stretching from Thailand to China. Neighbou ...

, three Tibeto-Burman branches, Karenic, Mruic, and Bai, display SVO (verb-medial) word order. This syntactic realignment has also occurred in

Sinitic The Sinitic languages (漢語族/汉语族), often synonymous with "Chinese languages", are a group of East Asian analytic languages that constitute the major branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. It is frequently proposed that there is ...

, which Scott DeLancey (2011) argues to be a result of

creolization Creolization is the process through which creole languages and cultures emerge. Creolization was first used by linguists to explain how contact languages become creole languages, but now scholars in other social sciences use the term to describe ne ...

through intensive language contact and multilingualism during the

Zhou Dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by ...

Morphology

Syllable structure

According to James Matisoff, Proto-Tibeto-Burman syllables typically consist of the following structure (Matisoff 2003:11-13). *P₁: first prefix - optional *P₂: second prefix - optional *C_i: initial consonant *G: glide - optional *V: vowel (optionally lengthened) *C_f: final consonant *s: suffix - optional The following types of changes in syllable structure have been attested in Tibeto-Burman languages (Matisoff 2003:155). (''Note'': ''

Sesquisyllable Primarily in Austroasiatic languages (also known as Mon–Khmer), in a typical word a minor syllable is a reduced (minor) syllable followed by a full tonic or stressed syllable. The minor syllable may be of the form or , with a reduced vowel, as ...

'', otherwise known as a ''minor syllable'', is a word coined by James Matisoff meaning "one-and-a-half syllables.") *disyllable **disyllable → sesquisyllable **disyllable → complex monosyllable **disyllable → simple monosyllable *sesquisyllable **sesquisyllable → disyllable **sesquisyllable → complex monosyllable **sesquisyllable → simple monosyllable *complex monosyllable **complex monosyllable → sesquisyllable **complex monosyllable → simple monosyllable *simple monosyllable **simple monosyllable → disyllable Below are the ''sources'' of the syllable changes (i.e., reversal of the list above). *disyllable **from sesquisyllable **from simple monosyllable *sesquisyllable **from disyllable **from complex monosyllable *complex monosyllable **from disyllable **from sesquisyllable *simple monosyllable **from disyllable **from sesquisyllable **from complex monosyllable However,

Roger Blench Roger Marsh Blench (born August 1, 1953) is a British linguist, ethnomusicologist and development anthropologist. He has an M.A. and a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge and is based in Cambridge, England. He researches, publishes, and work ...

(2019) argues that Proto-Sino-Tibetan did not have sesquisyllabic structure; instead, sesquisyllabicity in present-day Sino-Tibetan branches had been borrowed from

Austroasiatic languages The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are t ...

due to typological

convergence Convergence may refer to: Arts and media Literature *''Convergence'' (book series), edited by Ruth Nanda Anshen *Convergence (comics), "Convergence" (comics), two separate story lines published by DC Comics: **A four-part crossover storyline that ...

Verbs

According to many authors such as James Bauman,

George van Driem George "Sjors" van Driem (born 1957) is a Dutch linguist associated with the University of Bern, where he is the chair of Historical Linguistics and directs the Linguistics Institute. Education * Leiden University, 1983–1987 (PhD, ''A Gramma ...

and Scott DeLancey, a system of verbal agreement should be reconstructed for proto-Tibeto-Burman. Verbal agreement has disappeared in Chinese, Tibetan, Lolo-Burmese and most other branches, but was preserved in

Kiranti languages The Kiranti languages are a major family of Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in Nepal and India (notably Sikkim, Darjeeling, Kalimpong, and Kumai) by the Kirati people. External relationships George van Driem had formerly proposed that the Kir ...

in particular. This is a topic of scholarly debate, however, and the existence of a PTB verbal agreement system is disputed by such authors as Randy LaPolla.

Prefixes

Matisoff postulates the following derivational prefixes. * *s- — This prefix is used for the ''directive, causative, or intensive''. It also appears in words for animals and body parts. * *ʔa- / *(ʔ)ə / *ʔə̃ / *ʔaŋ / *ʔak — This glottal prefix is used for ''kinship functions'' and the ''third person possessive''. * *m- — Before verb roots, this prefix signifies ''inner-directed states or actions'', such as stativity, intrasitivity, durativity, and reflexivity. Before noun roots, it is used as a third person possessive prefix. * *r- — Before verbs, this prefix is used as a "''directive''." It is also used before a wide variety of semantically unrelated noun roots. * *b- — This prefix is often used before ''transitive verbs'', and usually marks the past (with suffix *-s, creating a *b- -s circumfix) and future (with a null suffix). * *g- — This velar prefix has a ''third person pronominal function'' before noun roots. It is also used before a wide variety of semantically unrelated noun roots. Before verb roots, it is used for the ''present and future tenses''. In Proto-Lolo–Burmese, the unvoiced velar prefix *k- is used commonly used before ''animal names''. Other constructed prefixes include *l- and *d-.

Circumfixes

Circumfixes have also been reconstructed for Proto-Tibeto-Burman. In Written Tibetan, s- -n and s- -d are collective circumfixes used in kinship terms (Matisoff 2003:453).

Suffixes

According to Matisoff, three Proto-Tibeto-Burman dental suffixes, *-n, *-t, and *-s, are highly widespread, but their semantics are difficult to reconstruct (Matisoff 2003:439). The suffixes *-s, *-h, and *-ʔ are often developed into tones in many Tibeto-Burman languages, and are thus highly "tonogenetically potent" (Matisoff 2003:474). * *-n – This suffix has a variety of functions, including ''nominalizing'', ''transitivizing'', and ''collectivizing'' (or pluralizing). The nominalizing function is attested in Lepcha as -m or -n and in Written Tibetan as -n. The transitivizing form is rare, and has only been attested in Kanauri. Finally, the collectivizing/pluralizing function is found not only in many modern-day Tibeto-Burman languages but also in

Old Chinese Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 ...

as well. * *-t – This suffix is used as a ''nominalizer''. It occurs in Jingpho as -t and Written Tibetan as -d. Other functions include ''verbalizing noun roots'' and making intransitive or stative verbs into ''transitive'' or ''causative'' ones (Matisoff 2003:457). In other cases, *-t appears to have no obvious function. The *-t suffix also occurs in

, but its semantic function is unclear. * *-s – Not easily distinguishable from *-t, this proto-suffix is preserved in written Tibetan, West

Himalayish languages The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non-Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people spe ...

, Chepang, Kuki-Chin languages (as -ʔ) and some Qiangic languages. It can serve as a nominalizer (Qiang and Tibetan), locative, ''subordinator'' (Kuki-Chin languages), a ''stative, inner-directed, or "middle" meaning'' (Himalayish languages such as Kanauri), and causative ( Kiranti and Kuki-Chin languages). * *-k – This velar suffix occurs in the

Kukish languages The Kuki-Chin languages (also called Kuki-Chin-Mizo, Kukish or South-Central Tibeto-Burman languages) are a branch of 50 or so Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in northeastern India, western Myanmar and southeastern Bangladesh. Most speakers of the ...

and also in

. Its semantic function is still unknown. However, Pulleyblank assigns a ''distributive'' sense to the *-k suffix, but only in relation to ''pronominal'' forms (LaPolla 2003:26). * *ʔay – This proto-morpheme means "to go", and can be attached to various roots as a palatal suffix to signify ''motion away from the deictic center''. This fully syllabic proto-morpheme has now been grammaticalized and reduced to palatal offglides in modern-day Tibeto-Burman languages. * *ya / *za / *tsa / *dza – Meaning "child" or "little one", this proto-morpheme appears in Tibeto-Burman languages as a palatal suffix (-j), and has also been reconstructed in several ways. Its purpose is mainly diminutive. Matisoff (2003) also notes that high front vowels tend to be used for diminutive functions. * *-way / *-ray – This proto-copula can also appear as a palatal suffix (-j) and occurs in ''roots carrying abstract grammatical meanings'', such as articles, pronouns, and deictics (Matisoff 2003:487).

Vocabulary

Among other researchers,

and James Matisoff have proposed reconstructed vocabulary items for Proto-Tibeto-Burman. Matisoff's Proto-Tibeto-Burman reconstruction is by far the most cited, and with his last version published in the final release of the ''

Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus The ''Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus'' (commonly abbreviated ''STEDT'') was a linguistics research project hosted at the University of California at Berkeley. The project, which focused on Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics, st ...

'' (2015).Matisoff, James A. 2015
''The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus''
Berkeley: University of California.
PDF
Bruhn, Daniel; Lowe, John; Mortensen, David; Yu, Dominic (2015). ''Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Database Software''. Software, UC Berkeley Dash. ''Allofams'' (a term coined by Matisoff to mean alternate proto-forms) are marked using ⪤.

Stable roots

Matisoff (2009) lists 47 stable Tibeto-Burman roots (i.e., etyma that have cognates widely distributed in branches throughout the family) and their Proto-Tibeto-Burman reconstructions. *Body parts (10 words): ''blood; bone; ear; eye; hair (body)/fur/feather; hand; nose; tail; tongue; tooth'' *Animals (5 words): ''animal; dog; fish; pig; snake'' *Numerals (6 words): ''three; four; five; six; eight; hundred'' *Natural objects and units of time (5 words): ''day (of 24 hours); fire; moon; smoke; sun/daytime'' *People and habitation (6 words): ''child/son; grandfather/elder brother; house; husband/male; man/person; name'' *Plants and ingestibles (2 words): ''medicine/juice/paint; poison'' *Pronouns (2 words): ''I (1st person); thou (2nd person)'' *Verbs (8 words): ''bitter; die; dream; eat; ill; kill; lick; steal'' *Abstract (3 words): ''copula; negative; negative imperative'' ;Body parts * *s-hywəy 'blood' (STEDT
230
* *s-rus ⪤ *m-rus ⪤ *g-rus 'bone' (STEDT
232
* *r-na 'ear' (STEDT
811
* *s-mik ⪤ *s-myak 'eye' (STEDT
33
* *mil ⪤ *mul 'hair (body)/fur/feather' (STEDT
363
* *l(y)ak ⪤ *dyak;

k(r)ut K, or k, is the eleventh letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''kay'' (pronounced ), plural ''kays''. The letter K ...

'hand' (STEDT
377

712
* *may ⪤ *mey ⪤ *mi 'tail' (STEDT
1288
* *l(y)a ⪤ *lay ⪤ *ley 'tongue' (STEDT
621
* *g-na 'nose' (STEDT
803
* *swa; džway'tooth' (STEDT
632

635
;Animals * *sya-n 'animal/meat/flesh' (STEDT
571134
* *kʷəy 'dog' (STEDT
1764
* *ŋ(y)a 'fish' (STEDT
1455
* *pʷak 'pig' (STEDT
1006
* *s-b-ruːl 'snake/vermin' (STEDT
2623
;Numerals * *g-sum 'three' (STEDT
2666
* *b-ləy 'four' (STEDT
2409
* *b-ŋa ⪤ *l-ŋa 'five' (STEDT
2623
* *d-k-ruk 'six' (STEDT
2621
* *b-r-gyat ⪤ *b-g-ryat 'eight' (STEDT
2259
* *b-r-gya 'hundred' (STEDT
2258
;Natural objects and units of time * *r(y)ak 'day (24 hours)/spend the night' (STEDT
2636
* *mey; bar ⪤ *par'fire' (STEDT
2136

2152
* *s-la ⪤ *g-la 'moon/month' (STEDT
1016
* *kəw ⪤ *kun ⪤ *kut 'smoke' (STEDT
2361
* *nəy 'sun/daytime' (STEDT
85
;People and habitation * *tsa ⪤ *za 'child/son' (STEDT
2727
* *bəw ⪤ *pəw 'grandfather/elder brother' (STEDT
2582
* *k-yim ⪤ *k-yum 'house' (STEDT
1612
* *pʷa 'husband/male' (STEDT
1612
* *r-mi(y) 'human/person' (STEDT
1002
* *r-miŋ; s-braŋ'name' (STEDT
2450

2169
;Plants and ingestibles * *tsəy; s-man'medicine/paint/juice' (STEDT
5427

5434
* *duk ⪤ *tuk 'poison' (STEDT
2530
;Pronouns * *ŋa-y; ka-y'1st person' (STEDT
2530
* *naŋ ⪤ *na '2nd person' (STEDT
2489
;Verbs * *ka-n 'bitter' (STEDT
229
* *səy 'die' (STEDT
27
* *r-maŋ 'dream' (STEDT
126
* *dzya 'eat' (STEDT
36
* *na ⪤ *nan ⪤ *nat 'ill' (STEDT
160
* *g-sat 'kill' (STEDT
1018
* *m-lyak; *s-lyam 'lick/tongue' (STEDT
629
* *r-kəw 'steal' (STEDT
2365
;Abstract * *way ⪤ *ray 'copula' (STEDT
1821
* *ma 'negative' (STEDT
2436
* *ta ⪤ *da 'negative imperative' (STEDT
2681

Reconstructed branches

Proto-language In the tree model of historical linguistics, a proto-language is a postulated ancestral language from which a number of attested languages are believed to have descended by evolution, forming a language family. Proto-languages are usually unattes ...

reconstructions for Tibeto-Burman branches include: *Proto- TGTM (Mazaudon 1994)
list
*Proto- Tibetic (Tournadre 2014Tournadre, Nicolas. 2014. "The Tibetic languages and their classification." In ''Trans-Himalayan linguistics, historical and descriptive linguistics of the Himalayan area''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.) (

list A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby unio ...

) *Proto- Western Tibetan (Backstrom 1994) (

) *Proto- Kiranti (Michailovsky 1991; Opgenort 2011;

Jacques Ancient and noble French family names, Jacques, Jacq, or James are believed to originate from the Middle Ages in the historic northwest Brittany region in France, and have since spread around the world over the centuries. To date, there are over ...

2017)
list 1list 2list 3
*Proto- West Himalayish (several proto-forms reconstructed by Widmer 2014, 2017) (

) *Proto- Dura (several proto-forms reconstructed by Schorer 2016) (

) *Proto-Himalayish ncestral proto-language of Kiranti, Magar, and Kham(Watters 2002) *Proto- Kham (Watters 2002Watters, David E. 2002. ''A grammar of Kham, Cambridge grammatical descriptions''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ) (

) *Proto- Siangic (Post & Blench 2011) (

) *Proto- Puroik (Lieberherr 2015Lieberherr, Ismael. 2015. A progress report on the historical phonology and affiliation of Puroik
North East Indian Linguistics (NEIL), 7
Canberra, Australian National University: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access.) (

) *Proto- Hrusish (Bodt & Lieberherr 2015) (

) *Proto- Tani (Sun 1993)
list
*Proto- East Bodish (Hyslop 2014) (

) *Proto- Central Naga o(Bruhn 2014)
list
*Proto- Tangkhulic (Mortensen 2012)
list
*Proto- Kuki-Chin (VanBik 2009)
list
*Proto- Bodo–Garo (Joseph & Burling 2006; Wood 2008) (

) *Proto-

Northern Naga The Konyak languages, or alternatively the Konyakian or Northern Naga languages, is a branch of Sino-Tibetan languages spoken by various Naga peoples in southeastern Arunachal Pradesh and northeastern Nagaland states of northeastern India. They a ...

onyak(French 1983)
list
*Proto- Luish (Huziwara 2012; Matisoff 2013) (

) * Proto-Karenic (Jones 1961; Luangthongkum 2013, 2019)
list
*Proto- Rma (Sims 2017Sims, Nathaniel. 2017. ''The suprasegmental phonology of proto-Rma (Qiang) in comparative perspective''. Presented at the 50th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Beijing, China.)
list
*Proto- Prinmi (Sims 2017)
list
*Proto- Ersuic (Yu 2012Yu, Dominic. 2012.
Proto-Ersuic
'. Ph.D. dissertation. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, Department of Linguistics.) (

) *Proto- Naish (Jacques & Michaud 2011) (

) *Proto- Lolo-Burmese (Matisoff 2003)
list
* Proto-Loloish (Bradley 1979)
list
*Proto- Bai (Wang 2006) (

) *Proto- Tujia (Zhou 2020Zhou, Yulou. 2020
Proto-Bizic: A Study of Tujia Historical Phonology
B.A. honors thesis, Stanford University.)
list

References

*Bauman, James. 1975. Pronouns and pronominal morphology in Tibeto-Burman. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. * * * * * *

Book reviews

* : ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * : ** **

External links

The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus

STEDT database

STEDT Proto-Tibeto-Burman reconstructionsSino-Tibetan Branches Project (STBP)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Tibeto-Burman Language Tibeto-Burman languages

Tibeto-Burman The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non- Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people spea ...