''Penicillium chrysogenum'' (formerly known as ''Penicillium notatum'') is a species of fungus in the genus ''

Penicillium ''Penicillium'' () is a genus of ascomycetous fungi that is part of the mycobiome of many species and is of major importance in the natural environment, in food spoilage, and in food and drug production. Some members of the genus produce pe ...

''. It is common in

temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout ...

and

subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately 35° north a ...

regions and can be found on salted food products, but it is mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings. It has been recognised as a species complex that includes ''P. notatum'', ''P. meleagrinum,'' and ''P. cyaneofulvum,'' but molecular phylogeny established that it is a distinct species and that ''P. notatum'' (its popular synonym) is '' P. rubens.'' It has rarely been reported as a cause of human

disease A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that a ...

. It is the source of several

β-lactam antibiotic β-lactam antibiotics (beta-lactam antibiotics) are antibiotics that contain a beta-lactam ring in their chemical structure. This includes penicillin derivatives (penams), cephalosporins and cephamycins (cephems), monobactams, carbapenems and ...

s, most significantly

penicillin Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from '' Penicillium'' moulds, principally '' P. chrysogenum'' and '' P. rubens''. Most penicillins in clinical use are synthesised by P. chrysogenum usin ...

. Other secondary

metabolite In biochemistry, a metabolite is an intermediate or end product of metabolism. The term is usually used for small molecules. Metabolites have various functions, including fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory and inhibitory effects on enzymes, ...

s of ''P. chrysogenum'' include roquefortine C,

meleagrin Meleagrin and its derivatives such as oxaline are bio-active benzylisoquinoline alkaloids made by deep ocean ''Penicillium ''Penicillium'' () is a genus of ascomycetous fungi that is part of the mycobiome of many species and is of major im ...

, chrysogine, 6-MSA YWA1/melanin, andrastatin A, fungisporin, secalonic acids, sorbicillin, and PR-toxin. Like the many other species of the genus ''

'', ''P. chrysogenum'' usually reproduces by forming dry chains of

spores In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, ...

(or

conidia A conidium ( ; ), sometimes termed an asexual chlamydospore or chlamydoconidium (), is an asexual, non- motile spore of a fungus. The word ''conidium'' comes from the Ancient Greek word for dust, ('). They are also called mitospores due to t ...

) from brush-shaped

conidiophores A conidium ( ; ), sometimes termed an asexual chlamydospore or chlamydoconidium (), is an asexual, non-motile spore of a fungus. The word ''conidium'' comes from the Ancient Greek word for dust, ('). They are also called mitospores due to ...

. The conidia are typically carried by air currents to new colonisation sites. In ''P. chrysogenum'', the conidia are blue to blue-green, and the mold sometimes exudes a yellow pigment. However, ''P. chrysogenum'' cannot be identified based on colour alone. Observations of morphology and microscopic features are needed to confirm its identity and DNA sequencing is essential to distinguish it from closely related species such as ''P. rubens''. The sexual stage of ''P. chrysogenum'' was discovered in 2013 by mating cultures in the dark on oatmeal agar supplemented with

biotin Biotin (or vitamin B7) is one of the B vitamins. It is involved in a wide range of metabolic processes, both in humans and in other organisms, primarily related to the utilization of fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids. The name ''biotin'', bo ...

, after the mating types (MAT1-1 or MAT1-2) of the strains had been determined using PCR amplification. The airborne asexual spores of ''P. chrysogenum'' are important human allergens. Vacuolar and alkaline

serine protease Serine proteases (or serine endopeptidases) are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins. Serine serves as the nucleophilic amino acid at the (enzyme's) active site. They are found ubiquitously in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Seri ...

s have been implicated as the major allergenic proteins. ''P. chrysogenum'' has been used industrially to produce penicillin and

xanthocillin X Xantocillin (INN), also known as xanthocillin X or ophthocillin, was the first reported natural product found to contain the isocyanide functional group. It was first isolated from ''Penicillium notatum ''Penicillium chrysogenum'' (formerly kno ...

, to treat

pulp mill A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fiber sources into a thick fiber board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical, or ...

waste, and to produce the enzymes

polyamine oxidase A polyamine oxidase (PAO) is an enzymatic flavoprotein that oxidizes a carbon-nitrogen bond in a secondary amino group of a polyamine donor, using molecular oxygen as an acceptor. The generalized PAO reaction converts three substrates (water, oxyg ...

, phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and glucose oxidase.

Science

The discovery of

ushered in a new age of antibiotics derived from microorganisms. Penicillin is an antibiotic isolated from growing ''Penicillium'' mold in a fermenter. The mold is grown in a liquid culture containing

sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or do ...

and other nutrients including a source of

nitrogen Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, often called the pnictogens. It is a common element in the universe, estimated at se ...

. As the mold grows, it uses up the sugar and starts to make penicillin only after using up most of the nutrients for growth.

History

Genetics and evolution

The ability to produce penicillin appears to have evolved over millions of years, and is shared with several other related fungi. It is believed to confer a selective advantage during competition with bacteria for food sources. Some bacteria have consequently developed the counter-ability to survive penicillin exposure by producing penicillinases, enzymes that degrade penicillin. Penicillinase production is one mechanism by which bacteria can become penicillin resistant. The principal genes responsible for producing penicillin, ''pcbAB'', ''pcbC'', and ''penDE'' are closely linked, forming a cluster on chromosome I. Some high-producing ''Penicillium chrysogenum'' strains used for the industrial production of penicillin contain multiple tandem copies of the penicillin gene cluster. Similar to other filamentous fungi, CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing techniques are available for editing the genome of ''Penicillium chrysogenum''.

References

External links

* {{Taxonbar, from=Q137155 Fungi described in 1910 chrysogenum Medicinal fungi Taxa named by Charles Thom