Ottawa phonology
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Ottawa (also spelled Odawa) is a
dialect The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of Linguistics, linguistic phenomena: One usage refers to a variety (linguisti ...
of the
Ojibwe language Ojibwe , also known as Ojibwa , Ojibway, Otchipwe,R. R. Bishop Baraga, 1878''A Theoretical and Practical Grammar of the Otchipwe Language''/ref> Ojibwemowin, or Anishinaabemowin, is an indigenous language of North America of the Algonquian lan ...
spoken in a series of communities in southern
Ontario Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...
and a smaller number of communities in northern
Michigan Michigan () is a state in the Great Lakes region of the upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the 10th-largest state by population, the 11th-largest by area, and the ...
. Ottawa has a phonological inventory of seventeen
consonant In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are and pronounced with the lips; and pronounced with the front of the tongue; and pronounced wit ...
s and seven oral
vowel A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (leng ...
s; in addition, there are long
nasal vowel A nasal vowel is a vowel that is produced with a lowering of the soft palate (or velum) so that the air flow escapes through the nose and the mouth simultaneously, as in the French vowel or Amoy []. By contrast, oral vowels are produced wit ...
s the phonological status of which are discussed below. An overview of general Ojibwa phonology and phonetics can be found in the article on
Ojibwe phonology The phonology of the Ojibwe language (also Ojibwa, Ojibway, or Chippewa, and most commonly referred to in the language as Anishinaabemowin) varies from dialect to dialect, but all varieties share common features. Ojibwe is an indigenous language of ...
. The Ottawa writing system described in Modern orthography is used to write Ottawa words, with transcriptions in the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of ...
used as needed. Significant innovations in Ottawa
phonology Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
differentiate it from other dialects of Ojibwe. It is characterized by a pervasive pattern of vowel syncope, by which short vowels are completely deleted or in certain circumstances reduced to
schwa In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa (, rarely or ; sometimes spelled shwa) is a vowel sound denoted by the IPA symbol , placed in the central position of the vowel chart. In English and some other languages, it rep ...
, when they appear in metrically defined Weak syllables. The notable effects of Syncope are: #Syncope increases the distinctiveness of Ottawa relative to other dialects of Ojibwe, as syncope makes the pronunciation and
representation Representation may refer to: Law and politics *Representation (politics), political activities undertaken by elected representatives, as well as other theories ** Representative democracy, type of democracy in which elected officials represent a ...
of many Ottawa words significantly different from those of other dialects of Ojibwe. #By deleting short vowels between consonants, syncope also creates new consonant clusters that do not occur in other dialects of Ojibwe. #In some cases, syncope results in further adjustments in the pronunciation of consonant sequences #Syncope has also resulted in new forms of the person prefixes that occur on nouns and verbs. #Syncope has increased the amount of variability in the pronunciation of words that contains vowels subject to syncope, as speakers frequently have more than one way of pronouncing person prefixes and words.


Consonants

Consonants are written using the conventional symbol from the Ottawa writing system, with the symbol from the
International Phonetic Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic transcription, phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standa ...
ic (IPA) following where the two vary. The
stop Stop may refer to: Places * Stop, Kentucky, an unincorporated community in the United States * Stop (Rogatica), a village in Rogatica, Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina Facilities * Bus stop * Truck stop, a type of rest stop for truck d ...
,
fricative A fricative is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in t ...
, and
affricate An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation (most often coronal). It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pair. ...
consonants are divided into two sets, conventionally referred to as
Fortis Fortis may refer to: Business * Fortis AG, a Swiss watch company * Fortis Films, an American film and television production company founded by actress and producer Sandra Bullock * Fortis Healthcare, a chain of hospitals in India * Fortis Inc ...
and
Lenis In linguistics, fortis and lenis ( and ; Latin for "strong" and "weak"), sometimes identified with tense and lax, are pronunciations of consonants with relatively greater and lesser energy, respectively. English has fortis consonants, such as the ...
, or equivalently 'Strong' and 'Weak.' Each fortis consonant is matched with a corresponding lenis consonant with the same
place of articulation In articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a consonant is a location along the vocal tract where its production occurs. It is a point where a constriction is made between an active and a passive articula ...
and
manner of articulation In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is ''stricture,'' that is, h ...
. The fortis consonants (''p, t, k, ch, s, sh'') are invariably
voiceless In linguistics, voicelessness is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies v ...
and phonetically
long Long may refer to: Measurement * Long, characteristic of something of great duration * Long, characteristic of something of great length * Longitude (abbreviation: long.), a geographic coordinate * Longa (music), note value in early music mensur ...
. The stops are also aspirated in most positions: , , , , but unaspirated after another consonant. The lenis consonants (''b, d, g, j, z, zh'') are typically
voiced Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterize speech sounds (usually consonants). Speech sounds can be described as either voiceless (otherwise known as ''unvoiced'') or voiced. The term, however, is used to refer ...
intervocalically and word-initially before a vowel but are devoiced in word-final position. They are also often subject to other phonological processes when adjacent to fortis consonants. A number of consonants occur only in loanwords from English: ''f, r, l''. The
labialized Labialization is a secondary articulatory feature of sounds in some languages. Labialized sounds involve the lips while the remainder of the oral cavity produces another sound. The term is normally restricted to consonants. When vowels involve ...
stop consonants and also occur in the speech of some speakers. Labialization is not normally indicated, but a subscript dot is utilized in , a dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe, to mark labialization: ''ɡ̣taaji'' ('s/he is afraid') and ''aaḳzi'' ('s/he is sick.') The contrast between fortis and lenis consonants has been interpreted as a distinction between
geminate In phonetics and phonology, gemination (), or consonant lengthening (from Latin 'doubling', itself from ''gemini'' 'twins'), is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from s ...
and non-geminate consonants. However, it has also been argued that Ottawa fortis consonants should be analysed as
consonant clusters In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound, is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education fie ...
. In support of this analysis, Ottawa fortis consonants correspond to clusters of /h/ followed by a lenis consonant in the dialects of northwestern Ontario, and the fortis consonants are descended from sequences of consonants in
Proto-Algonquian Proto-Algonquian (commonly abbreviated PA) is the proto-language from which the various Algonquian languages are descended. It is generally estimated to have been spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago, but there is less agreement on where it was ...
, the reconstructed ancestor language from which Ojibwe and its dialects descend.


Vowels

Ottawa has seven oral vowel sounds, four
long Long may refer to: Measurement * Long, characteristic of something of great duration * Long, characteristic of something of great length * Longitude (abbreviation: long.), a geographic coordinate * Longa (music), note value in early music mensur ...
and three
short Short may refer to: Places * Short (crater), a lunar impact crater on the near side of the Moon * Short, Mississippi, an unincorporated community * Short, Oklahoma, a census-designated place People * Short (surname) * List of people known as ...
. The long vowels ''ii, oo, aa'' are paired with the corresponding short vowels ''i, o, a.'' The long ''e'' has no corresponding short vowel. The phonological distinction between long vowels and short vowels plays a significant role in Ottawa phonology. Only short vowels can be metrically
Weak Weak may refer to: Songs * "Weak" (AJR song), 2016 * "Weak" (Melanie C song), 2011 * "Weak" (SWV song), 1993 * "Weak" (Skunk Anansie song), 1995 * "Weak", a song by Seether from '' Seether: 2002-2013'' Television episodes * "Weak" (''Fear t ...
and hence candidates for Syncope. Similarly long vowels are invariably metrically Strong and are never deleted. The table gives the orthographic symbol and the primary phonetic values for each vowel. There are also four nasal vowels, often occurring in the final syllable of nouns with
diminutive A diminutive is a root word that has been modified to convey a slighter degree of its root meaning, either to convey the smallness of the object or quality named, or to convey a sense of intimacy or endearment. A (abbreviated ) is a word-formati ...
suffixes or words with a diminutive connotation; orthographically the long vowel is followed by word-final to indicate that the vowel is nasal, but the use of is an orthographic convention and does not correspond to an independent segment. Some analyses treat the long nasal vowels as phonemic, while others treat them as derived by rule from sequences of long vowel followed by . , in his study of the related Southwestern Ojibwa dialect spoken in Minnesota describes the status of the analogous vowels as unclear, noting that while the distribution of the long nasal vowels is restricted, there is a
minimal pair In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, spoken or signed, that differ in only one phonological element, such as a phoneme, toneme or chroneme, and have distinct meanings. They are used to demonstrate th ...
''giiwe'' ('s/he goes home' and ''giiwenh'' ('so the stories goes'). Other presentations of Ojibwe phonology are silent on the issue. Ottawa also has
nasalized In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is . In the Internationa ...
vowels that arise from combinations of a vowel and a nasal consonant followed by a fricative. These secondarily nasal vowels are predictable and are not part of the Ottawa inventory of vowel
phoneme In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-west o ...
s.


Phonological processes


Vowel syncope

Ottawa (and Eastern Ojibwa) are characterized by a pervasive pattern of vowel syncope, whereby short vowels are completely deleted or in certain circumstances reduced to schwa when they appear in metrically defined Weak syllables, discussed below. Syncope sharply distinguishes Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwa from other dialects of Ojibwe, although related patterns of syncope primarily affecting word-initial syllables have also been recorded for Ojibwe communities along the north shore of Lake Superior, between
Thunder Bay Thunder Bay is a city in and the seat of Thunder Bay District, Ontario, Canada. It is the most populous municipality in Northwestern Ontario and the second most populous (after Greater Sudbury) municipality in Northern Ontario; its population ...
and Sault Ste. Marie. Syncope has had far-reaching effects in Ottawa, resulting in significant changes in the pronunciation and representation of words, prefixes, and suffixes, and increasing the distinctiveness of Ottawa relative to other dialects of Ojibwe. Syncope has also resulted in the introduction of new forms for person prefixes on nouns and verbs, and the deletion of vowels between consonants has resulted in new secondary consonant sequences, which in some cases results in further adjustments in the pronunciation of consonant sequences. Syncope has increased the amount of variability in the pronunciation of words that contains vowels subject to Syncope. The patterns of syncope are not new in Ottawa, and are attested in the Ottawa material that linguist
Leonard Bloomfield Leonard Bloomfield (April 1, 1887 – April 18, 1949) was an American linguist who led the development of structural linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and the 1940s. He is considered to be the father of American distributionalism ...
recorded in the late 1930s from Andrew Medler, an Ottawa speaker originally from Michigan who spent most of his life at Walpole Island. Although reduction and syncope effects in Walpole Island Ottawa were noted in , and treated by him as vowel reduction, the situation was not identical in all Ottawa materials collected in approximately the same period. Material collected by Bloomfield in 1941 from Ottawa speaker Angeline Williams, then residing at
Sugar Island, Michigan Sugar Island is an island in the U.S. state of Michigan in the St. Marys River between the United States and the Canadian province of Ontario. The entire island constitutes Sugar Island Township in Chippewa County at the eastern tip of the Upp ...
, east of Sault Ste. Marie show no sign of Syncope. Williams was born at Manistique, Michigan in 1872. As well, material collected by C. F. Voegelin from Ottawa speaker Gregor McGregor of Birch Island, Ontario (immediately north of Manitoulin Island) shows only a very limited amount of Syncope. McGregor was born in 1869. Syncope is also sociolinguistically complex in terms of the way it is realized by different speakers of Ottawa, as distinct patterns have been noted that involve age grading and regional variation within Ottawa-speaking territory. notes that for older speakers, in particular at Manitoulin Island, deletion of short vowels is "…a kind of casual speech phenomena, and the vowels can be easily resupplied (with only some ambiguity of quality)." By comparison, for younger speakers and for older speakers elsewhere, such as the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, deletion of short vowels is categorical. The Potawatomi language also has rules that affect short vowels, reducing them to schwa and also deleting them under conditions similar to Ottawa. The Potawatomi phenomena were recorded as early as the 1830s, whereas Ottawa materials from the same period do not show any signs of vowel reduction or deletion. The rise of extensive Syncope in Ottawa may be a
substratum In linguistics, a stratum (Latin for "layer") or strate is a language that influences or is influenced by another through contact. A substratum or substrate is a language that has lower power or prestige than another, while a superstratum or sup ...
effect related to the migration of Potawatomi speakers to Ottawa-speaking communities in southern Ontario in the late nineteenth century. Distinct unrelated patterns of syncope in more restricted contexts are also found in northern dialects, in particular Severn Ojibwa and
Algonquin Algonquin or Algonquian—and the variation Algonki(a)n—may refer to: Languages and peoples *Algonquian languages, a large subfamily of Native American languages in a wide swath of eastern North America from Canada to Virginia **Algonquin la ...
.


Basic pattern

In the following table, differences in pronunciation between non-syncopating varieties of Ojibwa and the syncopating Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwa are shown.


Metrical feet and syllable weight

Ojibwe syllables are organized into
metrical feet The foot is the basic repeating metre (poetry), rhythmic unit that forms part of a line of poetry, verse in most Indo-European languages, Indo-European traditions of poetry, including English accentual-syllabic verse and the quantitative meter of ...
. A Foot consists of a minimum of one
syllable A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants). Syllables are often considered the phonological "bu ...
and a maximum of two syllables. Syllables are either
Weak Weak may refer to: Songs * "Weak" (AJR song), 2016 * "Weak" (Melanie C song), 2011 * "Weak" (SWV song), 1993 * "Weak" (Skunk Anansie song), 1995 * "Weak", a song by Seether from '' Seether: 2002-2013'' Television episodes * "Weak" (''Fear t ...
or Strong. Each foot contains no more one than one Strong syllable. Taken together, the metrical Foot in combination with weak and strong syllables define the domain for relative prominence, in which a Strong syllable is more prominent than the weak member of the foot. The following summarizes material in . Syllable weight plays a significant role in Ottawa phonology and determines stress placement and syncope. Several general principles determine syllable weight. Assignment of syllable weight starts at the left edge of a word and proceeds left to right. 1. All syllables containing long vowels are strong.
2. Counting left to right from the beginning of the word, in a sequence of two or more syllables containing short vowels the odd-numbered syllable is Weak and the even-numbered syllable is strong.
3. The final syllable of a word is always strong. Possible feet are listed below. The first two-foot types are iambic, alternating weak-strong. :Weak-Strong (both syllables have short vowels): ''asin'' ('stone') :Weak-Strong (first vowel short, second vowel long): ''apii'' ('time when') :Strong (long vowel not preceded by a metrically Weak short vowel): ''jiimaan'' (both syllables strong) :Strong (long vowel in last syllable of a word, vowel length irrelevant): ''waagosh'' ('fox') Weak vowels are subject to syncope.


Alternations in syllable weight

Addition of
inflection In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and defin ...
al prefixes or suffixes can change the syllable weight assignment of a word. As a result, a short vowel may be exempt from Syncope because it is in a metrically Strong syllable in one form of a word, but may be eligible for Syncope because the addition of a prefix or suffix changes the syllable weight of the same syllable in a related form of the word. In a word such as Ojibwa ''makizin'' ('shoe') (in non-syncopating dialects) the first two syllables are Weak and Strong, respectively (by rule 3 above), while the final syllable is Strong (by rule 2). In Ottawa, the first vowel is deleted: ''mkizin.'' The
personal Personal may refer to: Aspects of persons' respective individualities * Privacy * Personality * Personal, personal advertisement, variety of classified advertisement used to find romance or friendship Companies * Personal, Inc., a Washington, ...
prefix /ni-/ ('first person') can be added to a noun such as ''makizin'': ''nimakizin'' ('my shoe'). The first two syllables are then Weak and Strong respectively, and the third and fourth syllables are also Weak and Strong respectively. Because the first and third syllables are weak, they are deleted in this word in Ottawa: ''nmakzin.'' Hence in the form of the word without a prefix the first vowel is deleted because it is in a Weak syllable; in the form with the person prefix the same vowel is in a Strong syllable and is not deleted. Similarly, the same noun can also occur with the
inanimate Animation is the interpolation of dissimilar frames over a finite period. Animate may also refer to: * Animate noun or animacy, a grammatical category * Animate (retailer), a Japanese anime retailer * "Animate" (song), by Rush * "Animate", a so ...
plural suffix /-an/, as in General Ojibwe ''makizinan'' ('shoes'). In this word the metrical structure is Weak-Strong Weak-Strong. In the Ottawa form the first and third vowels are deleted: ''mkiznan.'' The vowel that was in the final Strong syllable in the singular form ''makizin'' and hence exempt from syncope is now in a Weak syllable because of the following suffix, and is eligible for deletion. The Ojibwe word 'my shoes' (non-syncopating dialects) has both the personal prefix and the plural suffix: ''nimakizinan.'' In this five-syllable word the metrical structure is Weak-Strong Weak-Strong Strong. The first and third syllables are metrically weak and are deleted in Ottawa: ''nmakzinan.'' In the table below 'W' represents Weak syllables and 'S' represents Strong syllables. An asterisk (*) represents the boundary between Feet. The basic form of a noun or verb word without any inflectional prefixes or suffixes is referred to as the
stem Stem or STEM may refer to: Plant structures * Plant stem, a plant's aboveground axis, made of vascular tissue, off which leaves and flowers hang * Stipe (botany), a stalk to support some other structure * Stipe (mycology), the stem of a mushro ...
. The interaction between the combinations of prefixes and suffixes and Syncope results in the Ottawa word stem for 'shoe' having three different shapes or
allomorph In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term ''allomorph'' describes the realization of phonological variations for a specif ...
s where other non-syncopating dialects have only one allomorph for this word stem.


Vowels in invariably weak syllables

In some cases a short vowel in a word may be metrically Weak in a particular variant of a word (and hence deleted) or it may be metrically strong and hence retained. However, in certain words a short vowel may be in a position where it would always be Weak and therefore always deleted. For such words, it cannot be deduced from synchronic Ottawa language material which of the short vowels /i, a, o/ was present in the historical pre-Syncope form of the word. Here, the quality of the vowel can only be determined by examining the form of the word in other dialects of Ojbwe that have not been affected by Syncope, or by referring to earlier sources for Ottawa, such as Baraga's late nineteenth-century dictionary. For example, the Ottawa word ''naawkwe'' ('be midday') originally had a vowel between the first ''w'' and ''k''. In other dialects this word has the form ''naawakwe''. In Ottawa, however, for the majority of speakers the short vowel ''a'' is never realized and for these speakers there is no reason to believe that the vowel is present in any representation of the word; hence the
underlying representation In some models of phonology as well as morphophonology in the field of linguistics, the underlying representation (UR) or underlying form (UF) of a word or morpheme is the abstract form that a word or morpheme is postulated to have before any phono ...
of the word is different for Ottawa speakers.


Secondary consonant clusters

Syncope creates secondary
consonant cluster In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound, is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education fie ...
s that are distinguished from consonant clusters that occur in all Ojibwe dialects. Secondary clusters are subject to a range of adjustments. Syncope affects sequences of the form /CVC.../ (Consonant Vowel Consonant) by deleting the Weak vowel, creating a secondary cluster of the form C... The affected consonants may be identical or different.


Word-internal secondary clusters

''1. Neutralization of Lenis Stops Before a Nasal. '' The lenis stops ''b, d, g'' before a nasal consonant may optionally be realized as the corresponding nasal consonant ''m, n, Å‹'', although ''g'' is the least likely to undergo this shift. ''2. Neutralization of Lenis Consonants Before a Fortis Consonant.''
Lenis consonants (''b, d, g, z, zh'') occurring before a homorganic fortis consonant (''p, t, k, s, zh'') are deleted. The examples cited below have fortis
fricative A fricative is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in t ...
consonants as the second element in the consonant sequence. Other examples include ''bp → p; dt → t; gk → k.''


Word-initial secondary clusters

Secondarily-arising word-initial consonant clusters reflect a pattern of
Reduplication In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change. The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edwa ...
of verb roots that forms many Ottawa words. This pattern has been effectively eliminated in Ottawa through the restructuring of these consonant clusters. ''3. Neutralization of Initial Nasal / Approximant Consonants Before a Homorganic Nasal / Approximant Consonant.''
Word-initial sequences of two identical nasal consonants or ''w'' are normally reduced to a single consonant; pronunciations with doubled consonants are rare. ''4. Neutralization of Word-Initial Identical Lenis Consonants'' Sequences of word-initial lenis consonants (''b, d, g, z, zh'') are reduced in two slightly different patterns. In the first, a sequence of two identical lenis fricatives is reduced to a single consonant. In the second pattern, in a sequence of two identical lenis stops, the consonant cluster is variably realized as (i) a sequence of two lenis stops; (ii) the corresponding fortis stop, or (iii) a single lenis stop.


Variable /i/ and /a/ in initial syllables

Weak short /i/ is also realized as /a/ in certain words in the initial syllable of noun or verb stems. This phenomenon is prominent in the material collected from Angeline Williams by Bloomfield cited above, and also occurs in the Ottawa material in . These data sets do not reflect Ottawa Syncope. Although this alternation also occurs in other dialects, it is most widespread in earlier Ottawa. There does not appear to be a general phonological conditioning factor for this variation, which arguably is determined lexically, i.e. on a word by word basis.. Valentine has a more complete list of examples on p. 430.


See also

*
Ojibwe dialects The Ojibwe language is spoken in a series of dialects occupying adjacent territories, forming a language complex in which mutual intelligibility between adjacent dialects may be comparatively high but declines between some non-adjacent dialects. ...


Notes


References


Ethnologue entry for Ottawa
* * * Hockett, C. F. 1958. "Foreword." Bloomfield, Leonard. ''Eastern Ojibwa,'' pp. v-vi. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * *O'Meara, Frederick. 1844. ''Kaezhetabwayandungebun kuhya kaezhewaberepun owh anuhmeaud keahneshnahbabeèegahdag keahnekenootahtahbeung.'' Cobourgh nt.: Printed at the Diocesan Press for the Church Society of the Diocese of Toronto, 1844. *O’Meara, Frederick. 1854. ''Ewh oowahweendahmahgawin owh tabanemenung Jesus Christ : keahnekuhnootuhbeegahdag anwamand egewh ahneshenahbag Ojibway anindjig : keenahkoonegawaud kuhya ketebahahmahgawaud egewh mahyahmahwejegajig Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ewede London anduhzhetahwaud.'' ew Testament in OjibweToronto: H. Rowsell. *Pilling, James Constantine. 1891. ''Bibliography of the Algonquian languages.'' Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 13. Washington: Government Printing Office. * * *


External links

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ottawa Phonology Anishinaabe languages Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands Indigenous languages of the North American Subarctic First Nations languages in Canada Languages of the United States Native American phonologies