An ''oppidum'' (plural ''oppida'') is a large fortified

Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age ( Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age ( Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly ...

settlement or town. ''Oppida'' are primarily associated with the

Celtic Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to: Language and ethnicity *pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia **Celts (modern) *Celtic languages **Proto-Celtic language *Celtic music *Celtic nations Sports Foo ...

late

La Tène culture The La Tène culture (; ) was a European Iron Age culture. It developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from about 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC), succeeding the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture without any defi ...

, emerging during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, spread across Europe, stretching from Britain and

Iberia The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese language, Aragonese and Occitan language, Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a pe ...

in the west to the edge of the Hungarian plain in the east. These settlements continued to be used until the Romans conquered Southern and Western Europe. Many subsequently became Roman-era towns and cities, whilst others were abandoned. In regions north of the rivers

Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...

and

Rhine ), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland , source1_coordinates= , source1_elevation = , source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein , source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland , source2_coordinates= , source ...

, such as most of

Germania Germania ( ; ), also called Magna Germania (English: ''Great Germania''), Germania Libera (English: ''Free Germania''), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman province of the same name, was a large historical region in north-c ...

, where the populations remained independent from Rome, ''oppida'' continued to be used into the 1st century AD.

Definition

is a

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

word meaning 'defended (fortified) administrative centre or town', originally used in reference to non-Roman towns as well as provincial towns under Roman control. The word is derived from the earlier Latin , 'enclosed space', possibly from the

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo ...

, 'occupied space' or 'footprint'. In modern archaeological usage ''oppidum'' is a conventional term for large fortified settlements associated with the Celtic

. In his ''

Commentarii de Bello Gallico ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' (; en, Commentaries on the Gallic War, italic=yes), also ''Bellum Gallicum'' ( en, Gallic War, italic=yes), is Julius Caesar's firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. In it C ...

'',

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...

described the larger

Celt The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient ...

settlements he encountered in

Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...

during the

Gallic Wars The Gallic Wars were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general Julius Caesar against the peoples of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland). Gallic, Germanic, and British tribes fought to defend their homel ...

in 58 to 52 BC as ''oppida''. Although he did not explicitly define what features qualified a settlement to be called an ''oppidum'', the main requirements emerge. They were important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded, and sometimes Roman merchants had settled and the

Roman legion The Roman legion ( la, legiō, ) was the largest military unit of the Roman army, composed of 5,200 infantry and 300 equites (cavalry) in the period of the Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and of 5,600 infantry and 200 auxilia in the period o ...

s could obtain supplies. They were also political centres, the seat of authorities who made decisions that affected large numbers of people, such as the appointment of Vercingetorix as head of the Gallic revolt in 52 BC. Manching model 1

Caesar named 28 ''oppida''. By 2011, only 21 of these had been positively identified by historians and archaeologists: either there was a traceable similarity between the Latin and the modern name of the locality (e.g. Civitas Aurelianorum-

Orléans Orléans (;"Orleans"
(US) and Alesia). Most of the places that Caesar called oppida were city-sized fortified settlements. However,

Geneva Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situa ...

, for example, was referred to as an ''oppidum'', but no fortifications dating to this period have yet been discovered there. Caesar also refers to 20 ''oppida'' of the Bituriges and 12 of the

Helvetii The Helvetii ( , Gaulish: *''Heluētī''), anglicized as Helvetians, were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. According to Juliu ...

, twice the number of fortified settlements of these groups known today. That implies that Caesar likely counted some unfortified settlements as ''oppida''. A similar ambiguity is in evidence in writing by the Roman historian

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...

, who also used the word for both fortified and unfortified settlements. In his work ''Geographia'',

Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...

listed the coordinates of many Celtic settlements. However, research has shown many of the localisations of Ptolemy to be erroneous, making the identification of any modern location with the names he listed highly uncertain and speculative. An exception to that is the ''oppidum'' of ''Brenodurum'' at

Bern german: Berner(in)french: Bernois(e) it, bernese , neighboring_municipalities = Bremgarten bei Bern, Frauenkappelen, Ittigen, Kirchlindach, Köniz, Mühleberg, Muri bei Bern, Neuenegg, Ostermundigen, Wohlen bei Bern, Zollikofen , website ...

, which was confirmed by an archaeological discovery. In archaeology and prehistory, the term ''oppida'' now refers to a category of settlement; it was first used in that sense by

Paul Reinecke Paul Heinrich Adalbert Reinecke (September 25, 1872 – May 12, 1958) was a German prehistorian and archaeologist. Life and work Reinecke was born in Berlin. He studied medicine and science under Rudolf Virchow. Interested in prehistory, he also ...

, Joseph Déchelette and in reference to Bibracte, Manching, and Závist. In particular, Dehn suggested defining an oppidum by four criteria: # Size: The settlement has to have a minimum size, defined by Dehn as . # Topography: Most ''oppida'' are situated on heights, but some are located on flat areas of land. # Fortification: The settlement is surrounded by a (ideally uninterrupted) wall, usually consisting of three elements: a facade of stone, a wooden construction and an earthen rampart at the back. Gates are usually

pincer gate A pincer gate (german: Zangentor) is a gate in a fortification that is deeply embedded between two inward angled exterior walls. Those wishing to enter the fort have to approach what is in effect a sunken road and, if hostile, can be attacked f ...

s. # Chronology: The settlement dates from the late

: the last two centuries BC. Celtic Oppidum 1st century B

In current usage, most definitions of ''oppida'' emphasise the presence of fortifications, so they are different from undefended farms or settlements, and urban characteristics, marking them as separate from

hill fort A hillfort is a type of earthwork used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for defensive advantage. They are typically European and of the Bronze Age or Iron Age. Some were used in the post-Roma ...

s. They are often described as 'the first cities north of the Alps', though earlier examples of urbanism in temperate Europe are also known. The period of 2nd and 1st centuries BC places them in the period known as La Tène. A notional minimum size of has often been suggested, but that is flexible and fortified sites as small as have been described as ''oppida''. However, the term is not always rigorously used, and it has been used to refer to any hill fort or

circular rampart A circular rampart (German: ''Ringwall'') is an embankment built in the shape of a circle that was used as part of the defences for a military fortification, hill fort or refuge, or was built for religious purposes or as a place of gathering. The ...

dating from the La Tène period. One of the effects of the inconsistency in definitions is that it is uncertain how many ''oppida'' were built. In European archaeology, the term ''oppida'' is also used more widely to characterize any fortified prehistoric settlement. For example, significantly older hill-top structures like the one at Glauberg (6th or 5th century BC) have been called ''oppida''. Such wider use of the term is, for example, common in the Iberian archaeology; in the descriptions of the

Castro culture Castro culture ( gl, cultura castrexa, pt, cultura castreja, ast, cultura castriega, es, cultura castreña, meaning "culture of the hillforts") is the archaeological term for the material culture of the northwestern regions of the Iberian Pe ...

it is commonly used to refer to the settlements going back to the 9th century BC. The Spanish word , also used in English, means 'a walled settlement' or 'hill fort', and this word is often used interchangeably with ''oppidum'' by archaeologists.

Location and type

According to pre-historian John Collis oppida extend as far east as the Hungarian plain where other settlement types take over. Around 200 ''oppida'' are known today. Central Spain has sites similar to oppida, but while they share features such as size and defensive ramparts the interior was arranged differently. ''Oppida'' feature a wide variety of internal structures, from continuous rows of dwellings (Bibracte) to more widely spaced individual estates (Manching). Some ''oppida'' had internal layouts resembling the '' insulae'' of Roman cities (Variscourt). Little is known, however, about the purpose of any public buildings. The main features of the ''oppida'' are the walls and gates, the spacious layout, and usually a commanding view of the surrounding area. The major difference with earlier structures was their much larger size. Earlier hill forts were mostly just a few hectares in area, whilst ''oppida'' could encompass several dozen or even hundreds of hectares. They also played a role in displaying the power and wealth of the local inhabitants and as a line of demarcation between the town and the countryside. According to Jane McIntosh, the "impressive ramparts with elaborate gateways ... were probably as much for show and for controlling the movement of people and goods as for defense".McIntosh (2009), p. 156 Some of the ''oppida'' fortifications were built on an immense scale. Construction of the 7km-long ' at Manching required an estimated 6,900 m³ of stones for the façade alone, up to 7.5 tons of iron nails, 90,000 m³ of earth and stones for the fill between the posts and 100,000m³ of earth for the ramp. In terms of labour, some 2,000 people would have been needed for 250 days. The 5.5km-long of Bibracte may have required 40–60 ha of mature oak woodland to be clear-felled for its construction. Bibracte, 1st century B

However, size and construction of ''oppida'' varied considerably. Typically ''oppida'' in

Bohemia Bohemia ( ; cs, Čechy ; ; hsb, Čěska; szl, Czechy) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohem ...

and

Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total l ...

were much larger than those found in the north and west of France. Typically ''oppida'' in Britain are small, but there is a group of large oppida in the south east; though oppida are uncommon in northern Britain, Stanwick stands out as an unusual example as it covers .

Dry stone Dry stone, sometimes called drystack or, in Scotland, drystane, is a building method by which structures are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together. Dry stone structures are stable because of their construction me ...

walls supported by a bank of earth, called

Kelheim Kelheim () is a town and municipality in Bavaria, Germany. It is the capital of the district Kelheim and is situated at the confluence of the rivers Altmühl and Danube. Kelheim has a population of around 16,750 (2020). History Kelheim is ...

ramparts, were characteristic of oppida in central Europe. To the east, timbers were often used to support the earth and stone ramparts, called ''

Pfostenschlitzmauer A ''Pfostenschlitzmauer'' (German for "post-slot wall") is the name for defensive walls protecting Iron Age hill forts and ''oppida'' in Central Europe, especially in Bavaria and the Czech Republic. They are characterized by vertical wooden pos ...

'' (post slot wall) or "

Preist Preist is a municipality in the district of Bitburg-Prüm, in Rhineland-Palatinate Rhineland-Palatinate ( , ; german: link=no, Rheinland-Pfalz ; lb, Rheinland-Pfalz ; pfl, Rhoilond-Palz) is a western state of Germany. It covers and ha ...

-type wall". In western Europe, especially Gaul, the ''

murus gallicus ''Murus gallicus'' or Gallic wall is a method of construction of defensive walls used to protect Iron Age hillforts and '' oppida'' of the La Tene period in Western Europe. Basic features The distinctive features are: * earth or rubbl ...

'' (a timber frame nailed together, with a stone facade and earth/stone fill), was the dominant form of rampart construction. Dump ramparts, that is earth unsupported by timber, were common in Britain and were later adopted in France. They have been found in particular in the north-west and central regions of France and were combined with wide moats ("Type Fécamp"). Oppida can be divided into two broad groups, those around the Mediterranean coast and those further inland. The latter group were larger, more varied, and spaced further apart. In Britain the ''oppidum'' of ''

Camulodunon Camulodunum (; la, ), the Ancient Roman name for what is now Colchester in Essex, was an important castrum and city in Roman Britain, and the first capital of the province. A temporary "strapline" in the 1960s identifying it as the "oldest rec ...

'' (modern

Colchester Colchester ( ) is a city in Essex, in the East of England. It had a population of 122,000 in 2011. The demonym is Colcestrian. Colchester occupies the site of Camulodunum, the first major city in Roman Britain and its first capital. Colch ...

, built between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD), tribal capital of the Trinovantes and at times the Catuvellauni, made use of natural defences enhanced with earthworks to protect itself.Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () The site was protected by two rivers on three of its sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River forming the southern boundary; the extensive bank and ditch earthworks topped with palisades were constructed to close off the open western gap between these two river valleys.Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing () These earthworks are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain, and together with the two rivers enclosed the high status farmsteads, burial grounds, religious sites, industrial areas, river port and coin mint of the Trinovantes.

History

Prehistoric Europe saw a growing population. According to Jane McIntosh, in about 5,000 BC during the Neolithic between 2 million and 5 million people lived in Europe;McIntosh (2009), p. 349 in the late (pre-Roman) Iron Age (2nd and 1st centuries BC) it had an estimated population of around 15 to 30 million. Outside Greece and Italy, which were more densely populated, the vast majority of settlements in the Iron Age were small, with perhaps no more than 50 inhabitants. While hill forts could accommodate up to 1,000 people, ''oppida'' in the late Iron Age could reach as large as 10,000 inhabitants. ''Oppida'' originated in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Most were built on fresh sites, usually on an elevated position. Such a location would have allowed the settlement to dominate nearby trade routes and may also have been important as a symbol of control of the area. For instance at the ''oppidum'' of Ulaca in Spain the height of the ramparts is not uniform: those overlooking the valley are considerably higher than those facing towards the mountains in the area. The traditional explanation is that the smaller ramparts were unfinished because the region was invaded by the Romans; however, archaeologist John Collis dismisses this explanation because the inhabitants managed to build a second rampart extending the site by to cover an area of . Instead he believes the role of the ramparts as a status symbol may have been more important than their defensive qualities. While some ''oppida'' grew from hill forts, by no means all of them had significant defensive functions. The development of ''oppida'' was a milestone in the

urbanisation Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly the ...

of the continent as they were among the first large settlements north of the Alps that could genuinely be described as towns or cities (earlier sites include the 'Princely Seats' of the Hallstatt period). Caesar pointed out that each tribe of Gaul would have several ''oppida'' but that they were not all of equal importance, implying a form of settlement hierarchy, with some ''oppida'' serving as regional capitals. This is also reflected in the archaeological evidence. According to Fichtl (2018), in the first century BC Gaul was divided into around sixty (the term used by Caesar) or 'autonomous city-states', which were mostly organized around one or more ''oppida''. In some cases, "one of these can be regarded effectively as a capital." ''Oppida'' continued in use until the Romans began conquering Iron Age Europe. Even in the lands north of the River Danube that remained unconquered by the Romans, ''oppida'' were abandoned by the late 1st century AD. In conquered lands, the Romans used the infrastructure of the ''oppida'' to administer the empire, and many became full Roman towns. This often involved a change of location from the hilltop into the plain.

Examples

By current country.

Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands

* Oppidum Aduaticorum/Atuatucorum, location undetermined, Belgium *Canteleux, Huissignies, Chièvres, Wallonia, Belgium *Cheslé, Bérisménil, Samrée

La Roche-en-Ardenne La Roche-en-Ardenne ( wa, Li Rotche) is a city and municipality of Wallonia located in the province of Luxembourg and the arrondissement of Marche-en-Famenne, Belgium. Lying beside a bend in the River Ourthe, the small town of La Roche-en-Ardenn ...

, Wallonia, Belgium *Chession,

Han-sur-Lesse Han-sur-Lesse (; wa, Han-so-Lesse) is a village of Wallonia and a district of the municipality of Rochefort, located in the province of Namur, Belgium. Han-sur-Lesse was called Ham from 1139, Ham Han Sur Lesche, from 1266, Han Sur Lece from 1465 ...

, Rochefort, Wallonia, Belgium * Flobecq, Wallonia, Belgium * Gilly-Ransart,

Charleroi Charleroi ( , , ; wa, Tchålerwè ) is a city and a municipality of Wallonia, located in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. By 1 January 2008, the total population of Charleroi was 201,593.

, Wallonia, Belgium *Gougnies, Gerpinnes, Wallonia, Belgium *Orchimont,

Vresse-sur-Semois Vresse-sur-Semois (, literally ''Vresse on Semois''; wa, Vresse) is a municipality of Wallonia located in the province of Namur, Belgium. The municipality consists of the following districts: Alle, Bagimont, Bohan, Chairière, Laforêt, M ...

, Wallonia, Belgium *Sinsin, Somme-Leuze, Wallonia, Belgium *

Titelberg Titelberg ( lb, Tëtelbierg) is the site of a large Celtic settlement or oppidum in the extreme south west of Luxembourg. In the 1st century BCE, this thriving community was probably the capital of the Treveri people. The site thus provides t ...

, Luxembourg *

Caestert Mount Saint Peter (French: ''Montagne Saint-Pierre''; Dutch: ''Sint-Pietersberg''), also referred to as Caestert Plateau, is the northern part of a plateau running north to south between the valleys of the river Geer to the west, and the Meus ...

, possibly Atuatuca Tungrorum, on the Walloon/Flemish/Dutch border, Belgium/Netherlands

Czech Republic

* * Hostýn *, Radíč * České Lhotice * Staré Hradisko Population estimate 5,000. * Stradonice * Třísov * Nevězice *, 170 ha. Population estimate 3,400. See reconstructed model of the acropolis in 450 BC.

France

* Alesia * Oppidum d’Altimurium near

Murviel-lès-Montpellier Murviel-lès-Montpellier (, literally ''Murviel near Montpellier''; Languedocien: ''Mervièlh'') is a commune in the Hérault department in the Occitanie region in southern France. The Oppidum d'Altimurium, also known as the ''Oppidum Murviel- ...

* Bibracte (Mont Beuvray), 135 ha * Bracquemont, Haute-Normandie * Cenabum, Orléans *

La Chaussée-Tirancourt La Chaussée-Tirancourt () is a commune in the Somme department in Hauts-de-France in northern France. Geography The commune is situated on the N235 road, on the banks of the river Somme some northwest of Amiens. Population Points of inter ...

, Picardie * La Cheppe, Champagne-Ardenne *

Corent Corent is a commune in the Puy-de-Dôme department in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes in central France. It sits approximately 2 miles north of Les Martres-de-Veyre on the side of the old volcanic Puy de Corent. In 2001 excavation began on a Gallic (Ce ...

* Divodurum, ancestor of present-day

Metz Metz ( , , lat, Divodurum Mediomatricorum, then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle and the Seille rivers. Metz is the prefecture of the Moselle department and the seat of the parliament of the Grand ...

, oppidum of the Mediomatrici * * Oppidum d'Ensérune * Oppidum d'Entremont * Oppidum de Nages * Oppidum de Marduel * Gergovia, 75 ha * Oppidum de Gondole *Jœuvres,

Saint-Jean-Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire Saint-Jean-Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire is a commune in the Loire department in central France. Population See also *Communes of the Loire department The following is a list of the 323 communes of the Loire department of France. The communes ...

Langres Langres () is a commune in northeastern France. It is a subprefecture of the department of Haute-Marne, in the region of Grand Est. History As the capital of the Romanized Gallic tribe known as the Lingones, it was called Andematunnum, th ...

, Champagne-Ardenne * Montlaurès * * Pech Maho *

Salon-de-Provence Salon-de-Provence (, ; oc, label= Provençal Occitan, Selon de Provença/Seloun de Provènço, ), commonly known as Salon, is a commune located about northwest of Marseille in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d ...

Toulouse Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and fr ...

* Uxellodunum * Vesontio, Besançon

Great Britain

Calleva Atrebatum Calleva Atrebatum ("Calleva of the Atrebates") was an Iron Age oppidum, the capital of the Atrebates tribe. It then became a walled town in the Roman province of Britannia, at a major crossroads of the roads of southern Britain. The modern villa ...

(Silchester), England *

, (

) England *

Oram's Arbour Oram's Arbour was an enclosed settlement (oppidum) during the Iron Age, in what is now Winchester, England. Limited dating evidence suggests the enclosure was dug in the early-mid first century BC.Biddle, M. 1975. 'Excavations at Winchester, 197 ...

(Winchester), England * Nanstallon, England * Ratae Corieltauvorum (Leicester), England * Traprain Law, Scotland * Verlamion, England * Noviomagus Reginorum, (

Chichester Chichester () is a cathedral city and civil parish in West Sussex, England.OS Explorer map 120: Chichester, South Harting and Selsey Scale: 1:25 000. Publisher:Ordnance Survey – Southampton B2 edition. Publishing Date:2009. It is the only ...

), England

Germany

Alcimoennis Alcimoennis or ''Alkimoennis'' is the name widely attached to a Celtic ''Oppidum'', or hill fort above the modern town of Kelheim in Bavaria, Germany. The name comes from Ptolemy, who in his ''Geography'', only mentioned the name and described ...

, 600 ha * *

Donnersberg The Donnersberg ("thunder mountain") is the highest peak of the Palatinate (german: Pfalz) region of Germany. The mountain lies between the towns of Rockenhausen and Kirchheimbolanden, in the Donnersbergkreis district, which is named after the ...

, 240 ha *

Dünsberg Dünsberg is a hill slightly northwest of Gießen in Hesse, Germany. At 498 meters in height, it is the highest mountain in the Gießen and Wetzlar area. On the southern slope of the hill, grave mounds were found from the Neolithic and the Bronz ...

*, Creglingen * Heidengraben, 1,700 ha * Hohenasperg * Glauberg (controversial, not dating to the 1st/2nd century BC) * Manching, 380 ha * Martberg *

Milseburg The Milseburg is an extinct volcano and at above sea level the second highest elevation in the Hessian part of the Rhön Mountains, Germany. The hill is located east of Fulda, near the villages of Kleinsassen and Danzwiesen. It is a popular dest ...

Staffelberg The Staffelberg is a hill in Bavaria, Germany. It is part of the Franconian Switzerland and one of the most important landmarks in Franconia. First settlements date from the Neolithic. Romans, Celts and Franconians followed. During the La Tèn ...

, known as

Menosgada Menosgada ("town above the Main valley")Motschmann 2006, p. 10 was a Celtic metropolis on the Upper Main (river) that was mentioned by the Greek geographer, Ptolemy. It was probably located on the hill known today as the Staffelberg. In the 1st ...

Oppidum Steinsburg Steinsburg is the colloquial name for the remains of a Celtic ''oppidum'' on the Kleiner Gleichberg in the German state of South Thuringia. It is located within the county of Hildburghausen by Waldhaus near the small town of Römhild. The Kleine ...

Hungary

*Budapest- Gellért Hill *Velem-Szentvid,

Velem Velem is a village in Vas county, Hungary. The village is situated on the slopes of Kőszeg Mountains, at the westernmost tip of the county and the region known as Alpokalja (Lower Alps). Velem is notable for its picturesque environment and heal ...

Portugal

* Citânia de Briteiros * Óbidos * Castro Culture of Portugal

Serbia

*Čarnok, near Vrbas * Židovar

Slovakia

Bratislava Bratislava (, also ; ; german: Preßburg/Pressburg ; hu, Pozsony) is the capital and largest city of Slovakia. Officially, the population of the city is about 475,000; however, it is estimated to be more than 660,000 — approximately 140% of ...

* Devín

Spain

List of castros in Asturias A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby union ...

* List of castros in the Basque Country *

List of castros in Cantabria A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby union ...

List of castros in Castile and León A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby union ...

List of castros in Galicia This is a list of Castro culture, castros in Galicia (Spain), ordered by provinces. Province of A Coruña Province of Lugo Province of Ourense Province of Pontevedra See also * List of castros in Asturias * List of castros i ...

Switzerland

Basel-Münsterhügel Basel-Münsterhügel is the site of an Iron Age ( late La Tène) fort or ''oppidum'', known as Basel oppidum, constructed by the Gaulish Rauraci after the battle of Bibracte in 58 BC. It the site of Basel Minster, in the Swiss city of Basel. ...

*Bern (Brenodurum) *

Mont Vully Mont Vully (653 m; in German also known as ''Wistenlacherberg''''MontVully''
hls-dhs-dss.ch) is a

, Bas-Vully * Zürich-Lindenhof

References

Notes Bibliography * Collis, John (2000), "'Celtic' Oppida", in Hansen, Mogens Herman, ''A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures'',

Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab {{Infobox organization , name = The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters , full_name = , native_name = Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab , native_name_lang = , logo = Royal ...

, pp. 229–240, * Collis, John (2010)
"Why do we still dig Iron Age ramparts?"
(PDF), ''Collection Bibracte'' 19: 27–36, * Jones, Stephen (2001) ''Deconstructing the Celts: a skeptic's guide to the archaeology of the Auvergne''. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress. *McIntosh, Jane (2009) ''Handbook of Life in Prehistoric Europe'' (paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Woolf, Greg (July 1993)
"Rethinking the Oppida"
''Oxford Journal of Archaeology'' 12: 223–234

External links

Multi-lingual site on European oppida
{{Authority control Former populated places Archaeological sites Celtic archaeological sites Iron Age Europe La Tène culture