Nisenan (or alternatively, Neeshenam, Nishinam, Pujuni, or Wapumni) is a nearly extinct Maiduan language spoken by the

Nisenan The Nisenan are a group of Native Americans and an Indigenous people of California from the Yuba River and American River watersheds in Northern California and the California Central Valley. The Nisenan people are classified as part of the lar ...

people of central California in the foothills of the Sierras, in the whole of the American, Bear and Yuba river drainages. Ethnologue states that there is only one speaker left. However, it is believed that there are a few other speakers left, although the number is not known. Most speakers also speak one or more of the different dialects. There has recently been a small effort at language revival. Most notably the release of the "Nisenan Workbook" (three volumes so far) put out by Alan Wallace, which can be found at the California State Indian Museum in Sacramento and the Maidu Interpretive Center in Roseville. As the Nisenan (like many of the Natives of central California) were not a unified nation but a collection of independent tribes which are grouped together primarily on linguistic similarity, there were many dialects to varying degrees of variation. This has led to some degree of inconsistency in the available linguistic data, primarily in regard to the phonemes.

Phonology

The phonology of Nisenan is similar to both

Konkow The Maidu are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of northern California. They reside in the central Sierra Nevada (U.S.), Sierra Nevada, in the watershed area of the Feather River, Feather and American River, American ...

and

Maidu The Maidu are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of northern California. They reside in the central Sierra Nevada (U.S.), Sierra Nevada, in the watershed area of the Feather River, Feather and American River, American ...

. Taking into account the various dialects, there appears to be a fair amount of

allophone In phonology, an allophone (; from the Greek , , 'other' and , , 'voice, sound') is a set of multiple possible spoken soundsor ''phones''or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, (as in '' ...

s across the dialects.

Consonants

The single affricate consonant has been most commonly described as alveolar , though some sources describe it as postalveolar . According to the Nisenan Workbook by Alan Wallace, and appear in complementary distribution. For example, the word for 'ten' is transcribed as 'maacam' (/c/ being realized as ) in Workbook #1 and 'maatsam' in Workbook #2. Similar allophony occurs between and . have been listed as ejectives (lenis ejectives according to "Central Hill Nisenan Texts with Grammatical Sketch" by Andrew Eatough) while other sources have labeled them simply as emphatic not specifying further as to how they contrast with the plain plosives. The Nisenan Workbooks depict these in transcription, though the sound guides have yet to distinguish them from the plain plosives. One source noted an audible click with /b/ and /d/ among some older speakers of at least one dialect of one of the Maiduan languages. The sound guides in the Nisenan Workbooks hold /b/ and /d/ as voiced plosives as in English. Some words have a double consonant (i.e. wyttee ne dappe oyote konna irl but it has not been made clear as to whether this is due to

gemination In phonetics and phonology, gemination (), or consonant lengthening (from Latin 'doubling', itself from '' gemini'' 'twins'), is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from ...

as the double consonants in Japanese, or just simply the same consonant being on the end of one syllable and the start of the next.

Vowels

All vowels come in long/short pairs Long vowels are indicated by a doubling of the vowel. is a bit lower, level with , somewhere between cardinal and is sometimes further back, closer to cardinal and are a bit lower and more centralized than the cardinal forms transcribed.

Numbers

Note: Due to dialectal variation from tribe to tribe, some sources may have different words. These are taken from the Nisenan Workbooks. : 1 = wyttee : 2 = peen : 3 = sap'yj : 4 = cyyj : 5 = maawyk : 6 = tymbo : 7 = top'yj : 8 = peencyyj : 9 = peli'o : 10 = maacam : 11 = maacam na wyttee (lit. 10 and 1 or 10+1; 'na' = +/and) : 12 = maacam na peen (etc. for 13 and up) : 20 = peenmaacam (lit. 2 10 or 2x10) : 30 = sap'yjmaacam (etc. for 40 and up) : 100 = maawykhaapa

References

External links

* Ethnologue
Nisenan
* Maidu Interpretive Center

* Nisenan Workbook excerpts with audio clip
Nisenan language
overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
OLAC resources in and about the Nisenan language

Bibliography

Campbell, Lyle Lyle Richard Campbell (born October 22, 1942) is an American scholar and linguist known for his studies of indigenous American languages, especially those of Central America, and on historical linguistics in general. Campbell is professor emeri ...

. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. . * Eatough, Andrew. (1999). ''Central Hill Nisenan Texts with Grammatical Sketch''. Berkeley: UC Publications in Linguistics, 132. * Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2009).
Ethnologue: Languages of the world
' (16th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. . * Heizer, Robert F. (1966). ''Languages, territories, and names of California Indian tribes''. * Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (nsz); . * Wallace, Alan. (2008). ''Nisenan Workbook #1 & #2''. {{Penutian languages Maiduan languages Indigenous languages of California Endangered Maiduan languages