Neo-Freudian
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Neo-Freudianism is a psychoanalytic approach derived from the influence of
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies explained as originatin ...
but extending his theories towards typically social or cultural aspects of
psychoanalysis PsychoanalysisFrom Greek: + . is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques"What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. In what might b ...
over the biological. The neo-Freudian
school A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes compuls ...
of
psychiatrists A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in psychiatry, the branch of medicine devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, study, and treatment of mental disorders. Psychiatrists are physicians and evaluate patients to determine whether their sy ...
and
psychologist A psychologist is a professional who practices psychology and studies mental states, perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior. Their work often involves the experimentation, observation, and interpretation of how indi ...
s were a group of loosely-linked American
theorists A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational study or research. Theories may be s ...
/writers of the mid-20th century "who attempted to restate Freudian theory in sociological terms and to eliminate its connections with
biology Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary i ...
."


Dissidents and post-Freudians


Dissidents

The term ''neo-Freudian'' is sometimes loosely (but inaccurately) used to refer to those early followers of Freud who at some point accepted the basic tenets of Freud's theory of
psychoanalysis PsychoanalysisFrom Greek: + . is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques"What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. In what might b ...
but later dissented from it. "The best-known of these dissenters are
Alfred Adler Alfred Adler ( , ; 7 February 1870 – 28 May 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of belonging, family constellation and birth order ...
and
Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, philo ...
.… The Dissidents." An interest in the social approach to
psychodynamics Psychodynamics, also known as psychodynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces underlying human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate t ...
was the major theme linking the so-called neo-Freudians:
Alfred Adler Alfred Adler ( , ; 7 February 1870 – 28 May 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of belonging, family constellation and birth order ...
had perhaps been "the first to explore and develop a comprehensive social theory of the psychodynamic self."Brinich, Paul, and Christopher Shelley. 2002. ''The Self and Personality Structure''. Buckingham. Following "Adler's death, some of his views…came to exert considerable influence on the neo-Freudian theory." Indeed, it has been suggested of " Horney and Sullivan ... that these theorists could be more accurately described as '
neo-Adlerian Neo-Adlerian psychologists are those working in the tradition of, or influenced by Alfred Adler, an early associate of, and dissident from the ideas of, Sigmund Freud. Education Neo-Adlerian ideas have been identified in the field of education, as ...
s' than 'neo-Freudians'."


Post-Freudians

The Independent Analysts Group of the British Psycho-Analytical Society ("Contemporary Freudians") are—like the ego-psychologists (e.g.
Heinz Hartmann Heinz Hartmann (November 4, 1894 in Vienna, Austria-Hungary – May 17, 1970 in Stony Point, New York), was a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. He is considered one of the founders and principal representatives of ego psychology. Life Hartmann was ...
) or the
intersubjective In philosophy, psychology, sociology, and anthropology, intersubjectivity is the relation or intersection between people's cognitive perspectives. Definition is a term coined by social scientists to refer to a variety of types of human inter ...
analysts in the States—perhaps best thought of as "different schools of psychoanalytic thought," or as "Post-Freudians…post-Freudian developments." They are distinct from the Kleinian schools of thought and include figures such as
Christopher Bollas Christopher Bollas (born 1943) is a British psychoanalyst and writer. He is a leading figure in contemporary psychoanalytic theory. Early life and education Bollas was born in the United States in Washington, DC. He grew up in Laguna Beach, Ca ...
,
D. W. Winnicott Donald Woods Winnicott (7 April 1896 – 25 January 1971) was an English paediatrician and psychoanalyst who was especially influential in the field of object relations theory and developmental psychology. He was a leading member of the Br ...
, and Adam Phillips.


Neo-Freudian ideas


History

As early as 1936,
Erich Fromm Erich Seligmann Fromm (; ; March 23, 1900 – March 18, 1980) was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was a German Jew who fled the Nazi regime and settled in the U ...
had been independently regretting that psychoanalysts "did not concern themselves with the variety of life experience…and therefore did not try to explain psychic structure as determined by
social structure In the social sciences, social structure is the aggregate of patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals. Likewise, society is believed to be grouped into structurally rel ...
."
Karen Horney Karen Horney (; ; 16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952) was a German psychoanalyst who practised in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of ...
, too, "emphasised the role
culture Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
exerts in the development of personality and downplayed the classical driven features outlined by Freud."
Erik H. Erikson Erik Homburger Erikson (born Erik Salomonsen; 15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. He coined the phrase identity c ...
, for his part, stressed that "psychoanalysis today is…shifting its emphasis…to the study of the
ego Ego or EGO may refer to: Social sciences * Ego (Freudian), one of the three constructs in Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche * Egoism, an ethical theory that treats self-interest as the foundation of morality * Egotism, the drive to ...
's roots in the
social organisation In sociology, a social organization is a pattern of relationships between and among individuals and social groups. Characteristics of social organization can include qualities such as sexual composition, spatiotemporal cohesion, leadership, s ...
," and that its method should be "what H. S. Sullivan called 'participant', and systematically so." Doctor and
psychotherapist Psychotherapy (also psychological therapy, talk therapy, or talking therapy) is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome pro ...
Harald Schultz-Hencke Harald Julius Alfred Carl-Ludwig Schultz-Hencke (18 August 1892, Berlin – 23 May 1953, Berlin) was a German psychiatrist and psychotherapist. After an initial introduction to psychoanalysis, with Sandor Rado as psychoanalyst, he was excluded ...
(1892–1953) was thoroughly busy with questions like impulse and inhibition and with the therapy of
psychoses Psychosis is a condition of the mind that results in difficulties determining what is real and what is not real. Symptoms may include delusions and hallucinations, among other features. Additional symptoms are incoherent speech and behavior t ...
as well as the
interpretation of dreams ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (german: Die Traumdeutung) is an 1899 book by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in which the author introduces his theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation, and discusses what w ...
. He worked with
Matthias Göring Matthias Heinrich Göring (5 April 1879, Düsseldorf – 24/25 July 1945, Posen) was a German psychiatrist, born in Düsseldorf. He died in prison in Poznań. He was an active Nazi. Göring started his studies with a doctorate in law, and a doct ...
in his institute (''Deutsches Institut für psychologische Forschung und Psychotherapie''), and created the name ''Neopsychoanalyse'' in 1945. The "Neo-Freudian revolt against the orthodox theory of
instincts Instinct is the inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behaviour, containing both innate (inborn) and learned elements. The simplest example of an instinctive behaviour is a fixed action pattern (FAP), in which a ve ...
" was thus anchored in a sense of what
Harry Stack Sullivan Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan (February 21, 1892, Norwich, New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France) was an American Neo-Freudian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who held that "personality can never be isolated from the complex interpersonal ...
termed "our incredibly culture-ridden life." By their writings, and "in accessible prose, Fromm, Horney, and others mounted a cultural and social
critique Critique is a method of disciplined, systematic study of a written or oral discourse. Although critique is commonly understood as fault finding and negative judgment,Rodolphe Gasché (2007''The honor of thinking: critique, theory, philosophy''p ...
which became almost
conventional wisdom The conventional wisdom or received opinion is the body of ideas or explanations generally accepted by the public and/or by experts in a field. In religion, this is known as orthodoxy. Etymology The term is often credited to the economist John K ...
." Through informal and more formal institutional links, such as the
William Alanson White Institute The William Alanson White Institute (WAWI), founded in 1943, is an Psychoanalytic institutes and societies in the united states, institution for training psychoanalysts and psychotherapists which also offers general psychotherapy and psychoanalys ...
, as well as through likeness of ideas, the neo-Freudians made up a cohesively distinctive and influential psychodynamic movement.


Basic anxiety

Karen Horney Karen Horney (; ; 16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952) was a German psychoanalyst who practised in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of ...
theorized that to deal with
basic anxiety Basic anxiety is a term used by psychoanalytic theorist Karen Horney. She developed one of the best known theories of neurosis. Horney believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships. Her theory proposes th ...
, the individual has three options: # Moving toward others'':'' Accept the situation and become dependent on others. This strategy may entail an exaggerated desire for approval or affection. # Moving against others: Resist the situation and become aggressive. This strategy may involve an exaggerated need for power, exploitation of others, recognition, or achievement. # Moving away from others: Withdraw from others and become isolated. This strategy may involve an exaggerated need for self-sufficiency, privacy, or independence.


Basic personality

The neo-Freudian
Abram Kardiner Abram Kardiner (17 August 1891, New York City – 20 July 1981, Connecticut) was a psychiatrist (Cornell Medical School, 1917) and psychoanalytic therapist. An active publisher of academic research, he co-founded the Psychoanalytic and Psychosomati ...
was primarily interested in learning how a specific society acquires adaptation concerning its environment. He does this by forming within its members what he names a " basic personality." The "basic personality" can initially be traced to the operation of primary institutions. It ultimately creates clusters of unconscious motivations in the specific individual "which in turn are projected in the form of secondary institutions," such as reality systems. The basic personality finds expression in the secondary institutions.


Criticism

" Fenichel developed a stringent theoretical critique of the neo-Freudians", which informed and fed into the way "
Herbert Marcuse Herbert Marcuse (; ; July 19, 1898 – July 29, 1979) was a German-American philosopher, social critic, and political theorist, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory. Born in Berlin, Marcuse studied at the Humboldt University ...
, in his 'Critique of Neo-Freudian Revisionism'...icily examines the tone of uplift and the Power of Positive Thinking that pervades the revisionists' writings, and mocks their claims to scientific seriousness." In comparable fashion, "an article…by Mr Edward Glover, entitled ''Freudian or Neo-Freudian'', directed entirely against the constructions of Mr Alexander" equally used the term as a form of orthodox reproach. In the wake of such contemporary criticism, a "consistent critique levelled at most theorists cited above is that they compromise the intrapersonal interiority of the psyche;" but one may accept nonetheless that "they have contributed an enduring and vital collection of standpoints relating to the human subject."


Influence, successors, and offshoots

In 1940,
Carl Rogers Carl Ransom Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach (and client-centered approach) in psychology. Rogers is widely considered one of the founding fathers of ps ...
had launched what would become person-centred psychotherapy, "crediting its roots in the therapy of
Rank Rank is the relative position, value, worth, complexity, power, importance, authority, level, etc. of a person or object within a ranking, such as: Level or position in a hierarchical organization * Academic rank * Diplomatic rank * Hierarchy * H ...
...& in the neo-Freudian analysts—especially
Karen Horney Karen Horney (; ; 16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952) was a German psychoanalyst who practised in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of ...
."Kirschenbaum, Howard. 2007.''The Life and Work of Carl Rogers''. Ross-on-Wye. A decade later, he would report that it had "developed along somewhat different paths than the psychotherapeutic views of Horney or Sullivan, or Alexander and French, yet there are many threads of interconnection with these modern formulations of psychoanalytic thinking." A half-century further on, whether by direct or by indirect influence, "consistent with the traditions of these schools, current theorists of the social and psychodynamic self are working in the spaces between social and political theory and psychoanalysis" once again.


Cultural offshoots

In his skit on Freud's remark that "if my name were Oberhuber, my innovations would have found far less resistance,"
Peter Gay Peter Joachim Gay (né Fröhlich; June 20, 1923 – May 12, 2015) was a German-American historian, educator, and author. He was a Sterling Professor of History at Yale University and former director of the New York Public Library's Center for Sch ...
, considering the notional eclipse of "Oberhuber" by his replacement Freud, adjudged that "the prospect that deviants would have to be called neo-Oberhuberians, or Oberhuberian revisionists, contributed to the master's decline."Gay (1990), p. 163


Neo-Freudians

*
Alfred Adler Alfred Adler ( , ; 7 February 1870 – 28 May 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of belonging, family constellation and birth order ...
*
Erik Erikson Erik Homburger Erikson (born Erik Salomonsen; 15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. He coined the phrase identity cr ...
*
Erich Fromm Erich Seligmann Fromm (; ; March 23, 1900 – March 18, 1980) was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was a German Jew who fled the Nazi regime and settled in the U ...
*
Frieda Fromm-Reichmann Frieda Fromm-Reichmann ( Reichmann; October 23, 1889 in Karlsruhe, Germany – April 28, 1957 in Rockville, Maryland) was a German psychiatrist and contemporary of Sigmund Freud who immigrated to America during World War II. She was a pioneer for ...
*
Karen Horney Karen Horney (; ; 16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952) was a German psychoanalyst who practised in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of ...
*
Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, philo ...
*
Abram Kardiner Abram Kardiner (17 August 1891, New York City – 20 July 1981, Connecticut) was a psychiatrist (Cornell Medical School, 1917) and psychoanalytic therapist. An active publisher of academic research, he co-founded the Psychoanalytic and Psychosomati ...
*
Harald Schultz-Hencke Harald Julius Alfred Carl-Ludwig Schultz-Hencke (18 August 1892, Berlin – 23 May 1953, Berlin) was a German psychiatrist and psychotherapist. After an initial introduction to psychoanalysis, with Sandor Rado as psychoanalyst, he was excluded ...
*
Harry Stack Sullivan Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan (February 21, 1892, Norwich, New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France) was an American Neo-Freudian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who held that "personality can never be isolated from the complex interpersonal ...
*
Clara Thompson Clara Mabel Thompson, M.D. (October 3, 1893 in Providence, Rhode Island – December 20, 1958 in New York City) was a prominent psychiatrist and psychoanalyst and co-founder of the William Alanson White Institute. She published articles and boo ...


Others with possible neo-Freudian links

*
Franz Alexander Franz Gabriel Alexander (22 January 1891 – 8 March 1964) was a Hungarian-American psychoanalyst and physician, who is considered one of the founders of psychosomatic medicine and psychoanalytic criminology. Life Franz Gabriel Alexander, i ...
*
Jessica Benjamin Jessica Benjamin is a psychoanalyst known for her contributions to psychoanalysis and social thought. She is currently a practicing psychoanalyst in New York City where she is on the faculty of the New York University Postdoctoral Psychology Prog ...
*
Nancy Chodorow Nancy Julia Chodorow (born January 20, 1944) is an American sociologist and professor. She began her career as a professor of Women's studies at Wellesley College in 1973, and from 1974 on taught at the University of California, Santa Cruz, unti ...
* Richard Hakim *
Thomas Ogden Thomas Ogden is a psychoanalyst and writer, of both psychoanalytic and fiction books, who lives and works in San Francisco, California. Ogden received a BA from Amherst College, MA, and an MD from Yale, where he also completed a psychiatric resi ...
*
David Rapaport David A. Rapaport (September 30, 1911, Budapest, Austria-Hungary – December 14, 1960, Stockbridge, Mass.) was a Hungarian clinical psychologist and psychoanalytic ego psychologist. Biography Rapaport was born in Budapest, Hungary on Septemb ...
* Alex Unger


References


Citations


General sources

* Gunn, Jacqueline Simon, Kyle Arnold, and Erica Freeman. 2015.
The Dynamic Self Searching for Growth and Authenticity: Karen Horney's Contribution to Humanistic Psychology
. '' The Forum of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry'' 59(2):20–23. * Mitchell, S. A., and M. J. Black. 1995. ''Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought''. USA: Basic Books. * Thompson, Clara. 1950. ''Psychoanalysis: Evolution and Development''. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons. {{Sigmund Freud Freudian psychology Neopsychoanalytic schools