Mushika dynasty, also spelled Mushaka, was a minor dynastic power that held sway over the region in and around Mount Ezhi (

Ezhimala Ezhimala, a hill reaching a height of , is located near Payyanur, in Kannur district of Kerala, south India. It is a part of a conspicuous and isolated cluster of hills, forming a promontory, north of Kannur (Cannanore). The Indian Naval Acad ...

) in present-day

North Malabar, Kerala North Malabar refers to the geographic area of southwest India covering the state of Kerala's present day Kasaragod, Kannur, and Wayanad districts, and the taluks of Vatakara, Koyilandy, and Thamarassery in the Kozhikode District of Kerala and th ...

, India. The country of the Mushikas, ruled by an ancient lineage of the Hehaya clan of the same name, appears in early historic (pre-Pallava) south India.Gurukkal, Rajan. “DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION.” ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150. Early Tamil poems contain several references to the exploits of Nannan of Ezhimalai. Nannan was known as a great enemy of the pre-

Pallava The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. The dynasty rose to prominence after the downfall of the Satavahana dynasty, with whom they had formerly served as f ...

Chera chieftains.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 195. The clan also had matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and Chola chieftains. The

Kolathunadu Kolattunādu (Kola Swarupam, as Kingdom of Cannanore in foreign accounts, Chirakkal (Chericul) in later times) was one of the four most powerful kingdoms on the Malabar Coast during the arrival of the Portuguese Armadas in India, along with ...

(

Kannur Kannur (), formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a city and a municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated north of the major port city and commercial hu ...

) Kingdom, which was the descendant of Mushika dynasty, at the peak of its power, reportedly extended from Netravati River (

Mangalore Mangalore (), officially known as Mangaluru, is a major port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats about west of Bangalore, the state capital, 20 km north of Karnataka– ...

) in the north to Korapuzha (

Kozhikode Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second ...

) in the south with

Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channe ...

on the west and Kodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of

Lakshadweep Lakshadweep (), also known as Laccadives (), is a union territory of India. It is an archipelago of 36 islands in the Arabian sea, located off the Malabar Coast. The name ''Lakshadweep'' means "one lakh islands" in Sanskrit, though the Lac ...

in the

. The Mushika/Ezhimala kingdom/chiefdom gradually developed into a monarchical polity (known as Kolla-desamNarayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 118-119 and 137-138.) in the early medieval period. The medieval Mushikas were considered as

Kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the co ...

s of Soma Vamsa.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 180-182. The hereditary title of the Mushika kings in the medieval period was Ramaghata Musaka (Tamil/Malayalam: Iramakuta Muvar).Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 122-123 and 141. The '' Mushaka Vamsa Kavya'', a dynastic chronicle composed in the 11th century by poet Athula, describes the history of the Mushika lineage.Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 394-95. Mushika kingdom came under the influence of Chera/Perumal kingdom in the 11th century AD. Mushika royals seem to have assisted the Chera/Perumal kings in their struggle against the

Chola Empire The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE d ...

.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 178-179. Two subsequent Chola inscriptions (c. 1005 AD,

Rajaraja I Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...

and c. 1018–19,

Rajadhiraja ''RajadhiRaja'' () is a 2014 Malayalam-language action thriller film, directed by Ajai Vasudev and written by the duo of Udayakrishna-Siby K. Thomas. The film stars Mammootty and Raai Laxmi, alongside an ensemble supporting cast including S ...

) mention the defeat of the Kolla-desam and the fall of the Iramakuta Muvar. The presence of the Cholas in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription. The kingdom survived the Chera/Perumal state, and came to be known as Kolathunad (

Kasaragod Kasaragod () is a municipal town and administrative headquarters of Kasaragod district in the state of Kerala, India. Established in 1966, Kasaragod was the first municipal town in the district. It is the northernmost district of Kerala an ...

area) in the post-Chera/Perumal period. The Mushika kings appear to have encouraged a variety of merchant guilds in their kingdom. Famous Indian guilds such as the anjuvannam, the manigramam, the valanchiyar and the nanadeshikal show their presence in the kingdom. The kings are also described as great champions of Hindu religion and temples. Some Mushika rulers are known for their patronage to a famous

Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

vihara in central Kerala. Presence of Jewish merchants is also speculated in the ports of Mushika kingdom. A location in Madayi is still known as "the Jew's pond" (the Jutakkulam).

Etymology

Tamil name "Ezhimalai" (the Ezhil Kunram) for the term "Mushika" or "Mushaka" in Sanskrit. The name was incorrectly pronounced as "Elimala" ("the Mountain of the Rats") also. The Ezhimala hill is described in ''Mushaka Vamsa Kavya'' as the "Mushaka Parvata".

Origins

The ancient ruling family of the Ezhimala seems to have existed in northern Kerala at least from early historic (pre-Pallava) period. Ancient Tamil poems also describe th chiefdom of Ezhimalai (also Ezhilmalai) on the northern edge of Tamilakam on its west (Malabar) coast. The rulers of Ezhilmalai were the most prominent hill chieftains of ancient Kerala. The port known as Naravu was located in Ezhimalai chiefdom (Akam, 97). The "Muvan" chieftain of the early Tamil poems, described as an adversary of the early Chera chieftains, is also identical with the Muvan of Ezhimalai. The early historic Ezhimala clan had matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and Chola chieftains. ''

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...

'', the Sanskrit epic poem of ancient India, also mention the Mushika as one of the kingdoms of the deep South of India, and is grouped with the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas. It is identified both as the Ay/Venad/Thiruvithamkur dynasty as well as the Nannan/Mushika/Kolathiri dynasty.

Ezhimala Nannan

Nannan was a velir-level chieftain of Ezhimalai ("the Ezhil Kunram"). Nannan is known as a great enemy of the early (pre-

) Chera chieftains (western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala). He appeas in '' Akananuru'' and '' Purananuru'' poems, and also in '' Natrinai'', in '' Pathitruppathu'' and in '' Kurunthokai''. He is described as the hunter chieftain of the vetar descent group ("vetar-ko-man"). Early Tamil poems contain several references to the exploits of Ezhimalai Nannan (who was also known as the lord of Konkanam). * Poet Kudavayur Kirattanar speaks about the defeat of certain Pazhayan by Nannan and his associates Ettai, Atti, Gangan, Katti and Punthurai. In another battle Nannan defeated a chieftain called Pindan (''Akam'', 152, and ''Natrinai'', 270). * When Nannan invaded Punnad, the Chera warriors came to the aid of the people of that country. It seems that Nannan managed to defeat Ay Eyinan, the leader of the Chera warriors, in the ensuing battle at Pazhi. The warriors of Nannan were led by a person called Minjili in this battle (''Akam'', 141, 181, and 396, and ''Natrinai'', 265). * However, poem 351 and poem 396 from the ''Purananuru'' describe Nannan and Ay Eyinan as relatives and as extremely close friends. So intimate was their relationship that Nannan renamed the "Pirampu" hills in his domain as "Aypirampu". * In the meanwhile, Kosar people from Chellur (identified present day

Taliparamba Taliparamba (also known as Perinchelloor and Lakshmipuram) is a Municipality in Taliparamba taluk of Kannur district, Kerala, India. The municipal town spreads over an area of and is inhabited by 44,247 number of people. Etymology Th ...

) attacked Ezhimala country, and even cut down the vakai (

albizia ''Albizia'' is a genus of more than 160 species of mostly fast-growing subtropical and tropical trees and shrubs in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. The genus is pantropical, occurring in Asia, Africa, Madagascar, America and A ...

), the tutelary tree of Nannan. Nannan defeated the Kosars with help of

Chola The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE d ...

Ilanchettu Chenni, but Pazhi was sacked by the Cholas (''Kurunthokai'', 73 and ''Akam'', 375). * Nannan was killed in a battle at Vakai Perumthurai by Chera Narmudi Cheral (''Pathitruppattu, IV).''

Jurisdiction

The ancient port of ''Naura'', which is mentioned in the ''

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' ( grc, Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς Θαλάσσης, ', modern Greek '), also known by its Latin name as the , is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and ...

'' as a port somewhere north of

Muziris Muziris ( grc, Μουζιρίς, Old Malayalam: ''Muciri'' or ''Muciripattanam'' possibly identical with the medieval ''Muyirikode'') was an ancient harbour and an urban centre on the Malabar Coast. Muziris found mention in the ''Periplus of ...

is identified with

.{{cite book, author=Menon, A. Sreedhara , title=A Survey of Kerala History, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C, year=2007, publisher=DC Books, isbn=9788126415786 Periplous of the Erythraean Sea

Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...

(1st century CE) states that the port of '' Tyndis'' was located at the northwestern border of ''Keprobotos'' ( Chera dynasty).Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. ''Journal of Roman Archaeology,'' ''14'', 334-350. The region, which lies north of the port at '' Tyndis'', was ruled by the kingdom of

during

Sangam period The Sangam period or age (, ), particularly referring to the third Sangam period, is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala and parts of Sri Lanka (then known as Tamilakam) spanning from c. 6th century BCE to c. 3rd century CE. ...

.A. Shreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History According to the ''

'', a region known as '' Limyrike'' began at '' Naura'' and '' Tyndis''. However the

Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...

mentions only '' Tyndis'' as the '' Limyrikes starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day

Malabar Coast The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing ...

. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000

sesterces The ''sestertius'' (plural ''sestertii''), or sesterce (plural sesterces), was an Ancient Rome, ancient Roman Roman currency, coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small, silver coin issued only on rare occasions. During the Roman Empire it w ...

mentioned that '' Limyrike'' was prone by pirates. The

Cosmas Indicopleustes Cosmas Indicopleustes ( grc-x-koine, Κοσμᾶς Ἰνδικοπλεύστης, lit=Cosmas who sailed to India; also known as Cosmas the Monk) was a Greek merchant and later hermit from Alexandria of Egypt. He was a 6th-century traveller who ma ...

mentioned that the '' Limyrike'' was a source of peppers. Ezhimala dynasty had jurisdiction over two ''Nadu''s - The coastal ''Poozhinadu'' and the hilly eastern ''Karkanadu''. According to the works of

Sangam literature The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connotes ...

, ''Poozhinadu'' consisted much of the coastal belt between

and

.{{Cite book, title=District Census Handbook, Kasaragod (2011), publisher=Directorate of Census Operation, Kerala, location=Thiruvananthapuram, page=9, url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3201_PART_B_KASARAGOD.pdf ''Karkanadu'' consisted of

Wayanad Wayanad () is a district in the north-east of Indian state Kerala with administrative headquarters at the municipality of Kalpetta. It is the only plateau in Kerala. The Wayanad Plateau forms a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, the southern ...

- Gudalur hilly region with parts of Kodagu (Coorg).{{cite book , author = Government of India , year=2014–15 , title= District Census Handbook – Wayanad (Part-B) 2011 , publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala , url= https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_B_WAYANAD.pdf It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler of Ezhimala dynasty, took refuge at Wayanad hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost to Cheras, just before his execution in a battle, according to the Sangam works. The Ezhimala/Mushika Kingdom at the peak of its power, reportedly extended from Netravati River (

) in the north to Korapuzha (

) in the south with

on the west and Kodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of

in the

.{{cite book , last1=Sreedhara Menon , first1=A. , title=''Kerala Charitram'' , year=2007 , publisher=DC Books , location=Kottayam , isbn=978-8126415885 , edition=2007 , page=175 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 , access-date=19 July 2020 Until the 16th century CE, Kasargod town was known by the name ''Kanhirakode'' (may be by the meaning, 'The land of ''Kanhira'' Trees') in

Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry ( Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam wa ...

.{{cite book , author = S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar , year=1942 , title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language , publisher=University of Madras , url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage The Kumbla dynasty, who swayed over the land of southern

Tulu Nadu Tulunad or Tulu Nadu, also called Bermere sristi or Parashurama Srishti, is a region and a proposed state on the southwestern coast of India. The Tulu people, known as 'Tuluva' (plural 'Tuluver'), speakers of Tulu, a Dravidian language, ar ...

wedged between

Chandragiri River The Chandragiri River also known as Perumpuzha River is the longest river in Kasaragod district, Kerala, India. It was named after the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya. The 17th century Chandragiri Fort is located on the river. Perumpuzha r ...

and Netravati River (including present-day Taluks of Manjeshwar and

) from ''Maipady Palace'' at Kumbla, had also been vassals to the

/ Kolathiri rulers, before the Carnatic conquests of

Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana and Mahar ...

. The Kumbla dynasty had a mixed lineage of

Malayali The Malayali people () (also spelt Malayalee and also known by the demonym Keralite) are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala in India, occupying its southwestern Malabar coast. They are predomin ...

Nair The Nair , also known as Nayar, are a group of Indian Hindu castes, described by anthropologist Kathleen Gough as "not a unitary group but a named category of castes". The Nair include several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom hist ...

s and

Tuluva Brahmin Tulu Brahmins or Tuluva Brahmins are the inhabitants of Tulu Nadu, also considered a part of Parashurama Kshetra which extends to Kerala. They consist of following: Sthanika Brahmins, also called "Sthanika Tulu Brahmins" or "Tulu Brahmins" ar ...

s. They also claimed their origin from

Cheraman Perumal Perumal (the 'Great One') is the name of a Hindu deity. It was also a medieval Indian royal title of: *Western Ganga dynasty Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 171. **Sripurusha **Rajamalla **Niti ...

s of Kerala.A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History

Francis Buchanan-Hamilton Francis Buchanan (15 February 1762 – 15 June 1829), later known as Francis Hamilton but often referred to as Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, was a Scottish physician who made significant contributions as a geographer, zoologist, and botanist whil ...

states that the customs of Kumbla dynasty were similar to those of the contemporary

kings, though Kumbla was considered as the southernmost region of

. Entire Tamilakam was a hub of

Indian Ocean trade Indian Ocean trade has been a key factor in East–West exchanges throughout history. Long-distance trade in dhows and proas made it a dynamic zone of interaction between peoples, cultures, and civilizations stretching from Southeast Asia to Ea ...

during the era. According to Kerala Muslim tradition, Kolathunadu was home to several oldest mosques in the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...

.{{cite book , author1=Edward Simpson, author2=Kai Kresse, title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333, access-date=24 July 2012 , year=2008, publisher=Columbia University Press, isbn=978-0-231-70024-5, page=333{{cite book, author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt, title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458, access-date=25 July 2012, year=1987, publisher=Brill, isbn=978-90-04-07929-8, pages=458–459{{cite book, author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi, title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179, access-date=25 July 2012, year=2007, publisher=Other Books, isbn=978-81-903887-8-8, pages=179– According to '' Qissat Shakarwati Farmad'', the ''Masjids'' at Kodungallur,

Kollam Kollam (), also known by its former name Quilon , is an ancient seaport and city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. The city ...

, Madayi, Barkur,

, Dharmadam, Panthalayani, and

Chaliyam Chaliyam is a village situated at the estuary of Chaliyar (River Beypore) in Kozhikode district of Kerala, India. Chaliyam forms an island, bounded by the Chaliyar in the north, and River Kadalundi in south, and the Conolly Canal in the ea ...

, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in the

. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in

town.Pg 58, Cultural heritage of

Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South Ca ...

: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978 Most of them lies in the erstwhile region of Ezhimala kingdom. The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an

Old Malayalam Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...

inscription written in a mixture of '' Vatteluttu'' and Grantha scripts which dates back to the 10th century CE.Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69. It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

s of Kerala.

Medieval Mushikas

The Indian anthropologist Ayinapalli Aiyappan states that a powerful and warlike clan of the Bunt community of

was called ''Kola Bari'' and the Kolathiri Raja of

was a descendant of this clan.{{cite book , last1=Ayinapalli , first1=Aiyappan , title=The Personality of Kerala , date=1982 , publisher=Department of Publications, University of Kerala , page=162 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXFuAAAAMAAJ , access-date=27 July 2018 , quote=A very powerful and warlike section of the Bants of Tulunad was known as Kola bari. It is reasonable to suggest that the Kola dynasty was part of the Kola lineages of Tulunad. The Kolla-desam (or the Mushika-rajya) came under the influence of the Chera/Perumals kingdom during eleventh century AD.Ganesh, K. N. (2009). ''Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala.'' Indian Historical Review, 36(1), 3–21. The

references to several kings in medieval Kerala confirms that the power of the Chera/Perumal was restricted to the country around capital

Kodungallur Kodungallur (; also Cranganore, Portuguese: Cranganor; formerly known as Mahodayapuram, Shingly, Vanchi, Muchiri, Muyirikkode, and Muziris) is a historically significant town situated on the banks of river Periyar on the Malabar Coast in ...

. The Perumal kingship remained nominal compared with the power that local rulers (such as that of the Mushika in the north and Venatu in the south) exercised politically and militarily. In his book on travels (''

Il Milione ''Book of the Marvels of the World'' ( Italian: , lit. 'The Million', deriving from Polo's nickname "Emilione"), in English commonly called ''The Travels of Marco Polo'', is a 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from s ...

''),

Marco Polo Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in '' The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...

recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors included Faxian, the Buddhist pilgrim and Ibn Batuta, writer and historian of

Tangiers Tangier ( ; ; ar, طنجة, Ṭanja) is a city in northwestern Morocco. It is on the Moroccan coast at the western entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean off Cape Spartel. The town is the capi ...

. The

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...

inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in

records its foundation year as 1124 CE.{{cite book , author = Charles Alexander Innes , year=1908 , title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) , publisher=Madras Government Press , pages=423–424 , url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up {{cite web, url=http://www.ananthapuri.com/kerala-history.asp?page=muslim, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605222957/http://ananthapuri.com/kerala-history.asp?page=muslim, url-status=dead, title=Arakkal royal family, archive-date=5 June 2012 Medieval Kolla-desam stretched on the banks of Kavvai, Koppam and Valappattanam rivers.

Mushika rulers from medieval inscriptions (10th - 12th centuries AD)

* Validhara Vikkirama Rama (c. 929 AD) - mentioned in the Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 180-181. * Kantan Karivarman ''alias'' Iramakuta Muvar (c. 1020 AD) - mentioned in an Eramam inscription of

Chera/Perumal Chera Perumals of Makotai, also known as the Perumal dynasty of KeralaThapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32., or Cheraman Perumal dynasty of MahodayapuramNoburu Karashmia ...

Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD). * ''Mushikesvara'' Chemani/Jayamani (c. 1020 AD) - Tiruvadur inscription.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 480-81. * Ramakuta Muvar (as a donor to the Tiruvalla temple in Tiruvalla Copper Plates/Huzur Treasury Plates).Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 197. * Utaiya-varma ''alias Ramakuta Muvar'' (early 12th century AD) - mentioned in the Kannapuram inscription. {, class="wikitable" , - !Inscription !Location !Notes , - , Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription (929 AD) , *

Ramanthali Ramanthali is a village in Kannur district in the Indian state of Kerala. It boasts the gateway for Indian Naval Academy in Ezhiamala. Demographics India census, Ramanthali had a population of 21937 with 10173 males and 11764 females. Anja ...

, near Ezhimala.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 475-76. * A single granite slab in the courtyard of the Narayankannur Temple. , * Mentions Mushika Validhara Vikrama Rama. * The so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam is quoted in the record.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 483. * Merchant guild manigramam is appointed as the guardian of the Narayankannur Temple. , - , Eramam inscription (1020 AD) , * Eramam, near

Payyanur Payyanur, , is a municipal town and a taluk, a sub-district administrative unit, in the Kannur district of Kerala, India. On 10 March 2018, Kerala Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan inaugurated Payyanur as the fifth taluk in the district. Payyan ...

.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 455. *A single slab in the site of the ruined Chalappuram Temple. , * Mentions Chera/Perumal king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD) and Iramakuta Muvar Kantan Karivarman (Srikantha Kartha) (c.1020 AD). * Mentions the merchants guilds of Valanchiyar and Nanadeyar. * Mentions Rajendra Chola Samaya Senapati from Katappa Palli. , - , Tiruvadur inscription (c. 1020 AD) , * Partly in the courtyard of the temple on either side of the sopana. * Partly in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. , * Creation and endowment of a grama (Brahmin settlement) with members chosen from some old grama settlements from central Kerala (

Vaikom Vaikom, , is a municipal town and a capital town of Vaikom Taluk, situated in the northwest of Kottayam district in the state of Kerala, India. The town is also noted for its role in the Indian independence movement for being the venue of Vai ...

, Paravur, Avittathoor,

Irinjalakuda Irinjalakuda is a municipal town in Thrissur district, Kerala, India. It is the headquarters of Irinjalakuda Revenue Division and Mukundapuram Taluk. After Thrissur, this town has most number of administrative, law-enforcement and judicial ...

and Peruvanam). * The engraver is mentioned as Rama Jayamani, the "royal goldsmith of the Mushika king ayamani. , - ,

Tiruvalla Copper Plates Thiruvalla copper plates, also known as the Huzur Treasury Plates, are a collection of medieval temple committee resolutions found at the Sreevallabha Temple, Thiruvalla, Kerala.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): ...

(Huzur Treasury Plates) , * Tiruvalla , * Presence of a Ramakuta Muvar (as a donor to the Tiruvalla temple). , - , Kannapuram inscription (beginning of the 12th century) , * Single stone slab fixed on a platform outside the prakara (outer wall) of the Kannapuram temple. , * Ramakuta Muvar Udaya Varma is mentioned.

Chola attacks on Mushika kingdom (Kolla-desam)

''Corrections by

M. G. S. Narayanan Muttayil Govindamenon Sankara Narayanan, commonly known as M. G. S. Narayanan (born 20 August 1932) is an Indian historian, academic and political commentator. He headed the Department of History at Calicut University (Kerala) from 1976 to 199 ...

on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai are employed.'' * In 1005 AD, i. e., 20 regnal year of emperor

(985–1014 AD), there is a reference (in the Senur inscription) to the defeat of the "haughty" kings at

, Kolladesam and

at the hand of Rajaraja. The Kolladesam is identified with the Mushika kingdom in north Kerala. According to scholars, "plunder is emphasised more than conquest n the inscriptionand it is likely that the victories at Kollam in the south, Kodungallur in the center and Kolladesam in the north of Kerala have been primarily the achievement of he Cholanaval forces". * Chola emperor

(1019–1044–1053/4 AD) is stated to have "confined the undaunted king of Venatu ackto Che aatu, destroyed the Iramakuta Muvar in anger, and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi flowers after capturing Kantalur Salai nowiki/>Vizhinjam?.html" ;"title="Vizhinjam.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Vizhinjam">nowiki/>Vizhinjam?">Vizhinjam.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Vizhinjam">nowiki/>Vizhinjam?while the strong Villavan [the Chera/Perumal king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle". The Irumakuta Muvar is not named in the above Chola ''prasasti'' (the above events are dated to around 1018–19 AD). * The presence of Chola army in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription of Chera/Perumal Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD) (which mentions a meeting attended by Rajendra Chola Samaya Senapati in the Chalappuram Temple).

Inscriptions related to Mushika country

Records mentioning Chera/Perumals

{, class="wikitable" , + !Inscription !Location !Notes , - , Panthalayani Kollam inscription (973 AD) , * Single stone slab in the upper frame of the srikoyil (central shrine) entrance in Tali temple.Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 448-49. , * Name of the king – probably Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD) – is built over by the present structure. , - , Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque inscription (10th century AD) , * On the granite blocks built into the steps of the ablution tank of the Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque , * A rare surviving document recording patronage by a

king (Bhaskara Ravi) (961-1021 AD) to the Mappila

s of Kerala. It also mentions about a merchant guild. , - , Pullur Kodavalam inscription (1020 AD) , * Pullur, near

Kanhangad Kanhangad () is a town, located in the Kasaragod District, state of Kerala, India. Location The area contains villages around Kanhangad town with Kasaragod as the northern border, Nileshwar, popularly known as the 'cultural town' of Kasar ...

. * Engraved on a single stone slab in the courtyard of the Pullur Kodavalam Vishnu TempleNarayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 68-70, 84 and 454.Narayanan, M.G.S. THE IDENTITY AND DATE OF KING MANUKULĀDITYA. ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', Vol. 31, 1969, 73–78. , * Mentions

king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD). * Identified king Manukuladitya with king Bhaskara Ravi. , - , Trichambaram inscription (c. 1040 AD) , * Three blocks of granite on the base of the central shrine of the temple.Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 465. , * Mentions

king Raja Raja (c. 1036–1089 AD). , - , Panthalayani Kollam inscription (c. 1089 AD) , * Single granite slab in the courtyard of the Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavati temple.Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 470. * The record was destroyed. , * Mentions

king Rama Kulasekhara (1089–1122 AD). * The location given as "Kollathu Panthalayani".

Miscellaneous records

{, class="wikitable" , - !Inscription !Location !Notes , - , Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription (1075 AD) , *

, near

. * Obverse sides of three granite blocks in the base of central shrine of Narayankannur Temple. , * Mentions Alupa king Kunda Alupa. , - , Trichambaram inscription (c. 11th century) , * Two granite blocks on the base of the central shrine of the temple.Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 486. , * The chieftain of Eranad Manavepala Mana Viyatan creates an endowment for the thiruvilakku at the Trichambaram Temple. * Manavepala Manaviyatan appears in the famous Jewish copper plates (c. 1000 AD). , - , Maniyur inscription (c. 11th century) , * Single stone slab outside the prakara (outer wall) of the temple. , * Maniyur_inscription_(c

Confirms the extension of the so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam to Mushika country.

Udayavarman Kolattiri

An inscription discovered from Kannappuram Temple, found fixed on a platform outside the prakara of the temple, in old Malayalam mentions king "Utaiya Varma Ramakuta Muvar".Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 485. The record give details of land set apart for the expenses of the Kannapuram Temple. The inscription can be attributed to the early years of the 12th century on the basis of script and language. {, class="wikitable" , - !Inscription !Location !Notes , - , Kannapuram inscription (beginning of the 12th century) , * Single stone slab fixed on a platform outside the prakara (outer wall) of the Kannapuram temple. , * Ramakuta Muvar Udaya Varma is mentioned. King Udayavarman of Karippattu palace in Kolattunadu is described as a favourite of the Chera/Perumal king in traditional Kerala chronicles. He is described as the overlord of the Fort Valapattanam, the Chera/Perumal king's Palace, the Taliparamba Temple, and the Perinchellur Brahmin village.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 131.

References

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Bibliography

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