Missile
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A missile is an airborne ranged weapon capable of self-propelled flight aided usually by a
propellant A propellant (or propellent) is a mass that is expelled or expanded in such a way as to create a thrust or another motive force in accordance with Newton's third law of motion, and "propel" a vehicle, projectile, or fluid payload. In vehicle ...
, jet engine or rocket motor. Historically, 'missile' referred to any
projectile A projectile is an object that is propelled by the application of an external force and then moves freely under the influence of gravity and air resistance. Although any objects in motion through space are projectiles, they are commonly found ...
that is thrown, shot or propelled towards a target; this usage is still recognized today with any unguided jet- or rocket-propelled weapons generally described as rocket artillery. Airborne explosive devices without propulsion are referred to as shells if fired by an artillery piece and
bombs A bomb is an explosive weapon that uses the Exothermic process, exothermic reaction of an explosive material to provide an extremely sudden and violent release of energy. Detonations inflict damage principally through ground- and atmosphere-tra ...
if dropped by an aircraft. Missiles are also generally guided towards specific targets termed as guided missiles or guided rockets. Missile systems usually have five system components: targeting, guidance system, flight system, engine, and
warhead A warhead is the section of a device that contains the explosive agent or toxic (biological, chemical, or nuclear) material that is delivered by a missile, rocket (weapon), rocket, torpedo, or bomb. Classification Types of warheads include: *E ...
. Missiles are primarily classified into different types based on firing source and target such as surface-to-surface, air-to-surface, surface-to-air and
air-to-air missile An air-to-air missile (AAM) is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft (including unmanned aircraft such as cruise missiles). AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid-fuel roc ...
s.


Terminology

Missile is derived from
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
"missilis" meaning "that may be thrown". The first use of the word was in the early 1600s by Philemon Holland. Historically, 'missile' referred to any
projectile A projectile is an object that is propelled by the application of an external force and then moves freely under the influence of gravity and air resistance. Although any objects in motion through space are projectiles, they are commonly found ...
that is capable of being thrown or a weapon that is shot or propelled towards a target. Later military definition refers to a missile as an airborne ranged weapon capable of self-propelled flight guided towards a specific target. Any unguided jet or
rocket A rocket (from , and so named for its shape) is a vehicle that uses jet propulsion to accelerate without using any surrounding air. A rocket engine produces thrust by reaction to exhaust expelled at high speed. Rocket engines work entirely ...
-propelled weapons are generally described as rocket artillery, and airborne explosive devices without propulsion are referred to as shells if fired by an artillery piece and
bombs A bomb is an explosive weapon that uses the Exothermic process, exothermic reaction of an explosive material to provide an extremely sudden and violent release of energy. Detonations inflict damage principally through ground- and atmosphere-tra ...
if dropped by a vehicle such as an
aircraft An aircraft ( aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to flight, fly by gaining support from the Atmosphere of Earth, air. It counters the force of gravity by using either Buoyancy, static lift or the Lift (force), dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, i ...
.


History

Rockets were the precursor to modern missiles and the first rockets were used as propulsion systems for arrows as early as the 10th century in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
. Usage of rockets as weapons before modern rocketry is attested to in China,
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
,
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
and
Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
. In the 18th century, iron-cased rockets were used in India by the
Kingdom of Mysore The Kingdom of Mysore was a geopolitical realm in southern India founded in around 1399 in the vicinity of the modern-day city of Mysore and prevailed until 1950. The territorial boundaries and the form of government transmuted substantially ...
and Maratha Empire against the British which was developed into Congreve rocket and used in the
Napoleonic Wars {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Napoleonic Wars , partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg , caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
. In the early 20th century, American Robert Goddard and German Hermann Oberth developed early rockets propelled by jet engines. In the 1920s,
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
developed solid fuel rockets at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory. Later, the first missiles to be used operationally were a series of rocket based missiles developed by
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
during World War II including the
V-1 flying bomb The V-1 flying bomb ( "Vengeance Weapon 1") was an early cruise missile. Its official Reich Aviation Ministry () name was Fieseler Fi 103 and its suggestive name was (hellhound). It was also known to the Allies as the buzz bomb or doodlebug a ...
and
V-2 rocket The V2 (), with the technical name ''Aggregat (rocket family), Aggregat-4'' (A4), was the world's first long-range missile guidance, guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed during the S ...
which used mechanical
autopilot An autopilot is a system used to control the path of a vehicle without requiring constant manual control by a human operator. Autopilots do not replace human operators. Instead, the autopilot assists the operator's control of the vehicle, allow ...
to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-ship and anti-aircraft missiles, typically based on a simple radio control ( command guidance) system directed by the operator. However, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers. After World War II, the advent of the
Cold War The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...
and development of
nuclear weapons A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either nuclear fission, fission (fission or atomic bomb) or a combination of fission and nuclear fusion, fusion reactions (thermonuclear weap ...
necessitated faster, more accurate and more versatile missiles with longer range and missile development was pursued by multiple countries.


Proliferation restrictions

Various attempts have been made to control the spread of long range missiles capable of carrying
weapons of mass destruction A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a Biological agent, biological, chemical weapon, chemical, Radiological weapon, radiological, nuclear weapon, nuclear, or any other weapon that can kill or significantly harm many people or cause great dam ...
, such as the Missile Technology Control Regime (1987) and the International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (2002). These were voluntary and not international treaties. Though not legally binding, more than 140 countries have been part of these agreements, and provide prior information on missile programs, expected launches, and tests. The gradual introduction of missile launched hypersonic glide vehicles since 2019, anti-satellite missiles, and the deployment of dual use missiles capable of carrying both conventional and nuclear warheads are proliferation concerns.


Components


Guidance, targeting and flight systems

A missile is most often guided by a guidance system though there are missiles that are unguided during some phases of flight. Missile guidance refers to methods of guiding a missile to its intended target. Effective guidance is important because reaching the target position accurately and precisely is a critical factor for its effectiveness. The missile guidance system accomplishes this by four steps: tracking the target, computing the directions using tracking information, directing the computed inputs to steering control and steering the missile by directing inputs to motors or flight control surfaces. The guidance system consists of three sections: launch, mid-course and terminal with same or different systems employed across sections. The guidance and homing systems are generally classified broadly into active, semi-active and passive. In active homing systems, the missile carries the equipment needed to transmit the radiation needed to illuminate the target and receive the reflected energy. Once the homing is initiated, the missile directs independently towards the target. In semi-active systems, the source of the radiation is located outside the missile usually in the launch vehicle which might be an aircraft or a ship and the missile will receive the radiation to direct towards the target. As the source is located outside, the launch vehicle needs to continue supporting the missile till it is guided to the intended target. In a passive system, the missile relies solely on the information from the target. The homing system might use
light Light, visible light, or visible radiation is electromagnetic radiation that can be visual perception, perceived by the human eye. Visible light spans the visible spectrum and is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400– ...
such as
infrared Infrared (IR; sometimes called infrared light) is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than that of visible light but shorter than microwaves. The infrared spectral band begins with the waves that are just longer than those ...
,
laser A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The word ''laser'' originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radi ...
or visible light, radio waves or other
electromagnetic radiation In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a self-propagating wave of the electromagnetic field that carries momentum and radiant energy through space. It encompasses a broad spectrum, classified by frequency or its inverse, wavelength ...
to illuminate the target. Once the guidance system identifies the target, the target might required to be tracked continuously if it is in motion. A guidance system might use INS which consists of a gyroscope and
accelerometer An accelerometer is a device that measures the proper acceleration of an object. Proper acceleration is the acceleration (the rate of change (mathematics), rate of change of velocity) of the object relative to an observer who is in free fall (tha ...
or might use satellite guidance (such as GPS) to track the missile’s position relative to a known target. The missile computers will compute the flight path required to steer the missile towards the target. In command guidance, a human operator may operate it manually or a support or launch system will transmit commands by using either optic fiber or
radio Radio is the technology of communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 3  hertz (Hz) and 300  gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connec ...
to guide the missile. The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the missile in flight which might be accomplished using vectored thrust of engines or aerodynamic maneuvering using flight control surfaces such as wings, fins and canards.


Propulsion

Missiles are powered by propellants igniting to produce thrust and might employ types of
rocket A rocket (from , and so named for its shape) is a vehicle that uses jet propulsion to accelerate without using any surrounding air. A rocket engine produces thrust by reaction to exhaust expelled at high speed. Rocket engines work entirely ...
or jet engines. Rockets might be fueled by solid-propellants which are comparatively easier to maintain and enables faster deployment. These propellants contain a
fuel A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as thermal energy or to be used for work (physics), work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chem ...
and oxidizer mixed in select proportions with the grain size and burn chamber determining the rate and time of burn. Larger missiles might use
liquid-propellant rocket A liquid-propellant rocket or liquid rocket uses a rocket engine burning liquid rocket propellant, liquid propellants. (Alternate approaches use gaseous or Solid-propellant rocket , solid propellants.) Liquids are desirable propellants because th ...
s where propulsion is provided by a single or combination of liquid fuels. A hybrid system uses solid rocket fuel with a liquid oxidizer. Jet engines are generally used in
cruise missile A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled guided missile that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large payload over long distances with high precision. Modern cru ...
s, most commonly of the turbojet type, because of their relative simplicity and low frontal area while turbofans and ramjets can also be theoretically used. From the 1950s to early 1970s, the United States operated Project Rover and Project Pluto for developing
nuclear thermal rocket A nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) is a type of thermal rocket where the heat from a nuclear reaction replaces the chemical energy of the rocket propellant, propellants in a chemical rocket. In an NTR, a working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, is ...
s and nuclear-powered ramjet engines for powering cruise missiles respectively. Both performed static engine tests but were cancelled before deployment. Ballistic missiles often have multiple stages and might use similar type or a mix of propulsion types. Some missiles may have additional propulsion from another source at launch such as a catapult,
cannon A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during th ...
or tank gun.


Warhead

Missiles have one or more explosive
warhead A warhead is the section of a device that contains the explosive agent or toxic (biological, chemical, or nuclear) material that is delivered by a missile, rocket (weapon), rocket, torpedo, or bomb. Classification Types of warheads include: *E ...
s, although other weapon types may also be used. The warheads of a missile provide its primary destructive power which might cause secondary destruction due to the kinetic energy of the weapon. Warheads are most commonly of the
high explosive An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An exp ...
type, often employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided weapon to destroy hardened targets. Warhead might carry conventional, incendiary, nuclear, chemical, biological or radiological weapons.


Classification

Missiles can be classified into categories by various parameters such as type, launch platform and target, range, propulsion and guidance system. Missiles are generally categorized into strategic or tactical missile systems. Tactical missile systems are short-range systems used to carry out a limited strike in a smaller area and might carry conventional or nuclear warheads. Strategic missiles are long-range weapons used to target beyond the immediate vicinity and are mostly designed to carry nuclear warheads though other warheads can also be fitted.


Strategic

Strategic weapons are often classified into cruise and ballistic missiles. Ballistic missiles are powered by rockets during launch and follow a trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target while cruise missiles are continuously powered by jet engines and travel at a flatter trajectory.


Ballistic

A ballistic missile is powered by single or multiple rockets in stages initially before following an unpowered trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target. It can carry both nuclear and conventional warheads. A ballistic missile might reach supersonic or hypersonic speed and often travel out of the Earth's atmosphere before re-entry. It usually has three stages of flight: *Boost phase: First phase at launch when one or more stages of rocket engine(s) fire propelling the missile *Mid-course phase: Second phase when the rocket engines stop firing and the missile continues ascending upwards on the given trajectory *Terminal phase: Final phase when the warhead(s) detach and descend towards the target Ballistic missiles are categorized based on range as: * Short-range : less than * Medium-range : to * Intermediate-range : to * Inter-continental : greater than


Cruise

A
cruise missile A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled guided missile that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large payload over long distances with high precision. Modern cru ...
is a guided missile that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight at a constant speed. It is designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision, and is propelled by jet engines. A cruise missile can be launched from multiple platforms and is often self-guided. It flies at lower speeds (often subsonic or supersonic) and close to the surface of the Earth, which expends more fuel but makes it difficult to detect.


Tactical

Missiles might be also be classified basis launch platform and target into surface-to-air, surface-to-surface, air-to-air, air-to-surface, anti-ship and
anti-tank Anti-tank warfare refers to the military strategies, tactics, and weapon systems designed to counter and destroy enemy armored vehicles, particularly tanks. It originated during World War I following the first deployment of tanks in 1916, and ...
.


Anti-ship

An anti-ship missile (AShM) is designed for use against large boats and ships such as destroyers and
aircraft carrier An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and hangar facilities for supporting, arming, deploying and recovering carrier-based aircraft, shipborne aircraft. Typically it is the ...
s. Most anti-ship missiles are of the sea skimming variety, and many use a combination of inertial guidance and active radar homing. A large number of other anti-ship missiles use infrared homing to follow the heat that is emitted by a ship; it is also possible for anti-ship missiles to be guided by radio command all the way. Many anti-ship missiles can be launched from a variety of weapons systems including surface warships,
submarine A submarine (often shortened to sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. (It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability.) The term "submarine" is also sometimes used historically or infor ...
s,
fighter aircraft Fighter aircraft (early on also ''pursuit aircraft'') are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat. In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air supremacy, air superiority of the battlespace. Domina ...
, maritime patrol aircraft, helicopters, shore batteries, land vehicles and by
infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
. Anti-submarine missile is a standoff anti-submarine weapon variant of anti-ship missiles used to deliver an explosive warhead aimed directly at a
submarine A submarine (often shortened to sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. (It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability.) The term "submarine" is also sometimes used historically or infor ...
, a depth charge, or a homing torpedo.


Anti-tank

An anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy heavily armored military vehicles. ATGMs range in size from shoulder-launched weapons, which can be transported by a single soldier, to larger tripod-mounted or vehicle and aircraft mounted missile systems. Earlier man-portable anti-tank weapons like anti-tank rifles and magnetic anti-tank mines had a short range but sophisticated antitank missiles can be directed to a longer target by several different guidance systems, including laser guiding, television camera, or wire guiding.


Air-to-air

An air-to-air missile (AAM) is a missile fired from a
fighter aircraft Fighter aircraft (early on also ''pursuit aircraft'') are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat. In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air supremacy, air superiority of the battlespace. Domina ...
for the purpose of destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid fueled but sometimes liquid fueled. A
radar Radar is a system that uses radio waves to determine the distance ('' ranging''), direction ( azimuth and elevation angles), and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It is a radiodetermination method used to detect and track ...
or heat emission based homing system is generally used and sometimes can use a combination. Short range missiles used to engage opposing aircraft at ranges of less than 16 km often use infrared guidance while long range missiles mostly rely upon radar guidance.


Air-to-surface

An air-to-surface missile (ASM) is a missile fired from an attack aircraft, strike fighter or an attack helicopter for the purpose of destroying land based targets. Missiles are typically guided and unguided glide bombs not considered missiles. The most common propulsion systems are rocket motor for short range and jet engines for long-range but ramjets are also used. Missile guidance is typically via
laser A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The word ''laser'' originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radi ...
, infrared homing, optical or satellite. Air-to-surface missiles for ground attack by aircraft provide a higher standoff distance engaging targets from far away and out of range of low range air defenses.


Surface-to-air

A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy
aircraft An aircraft ( aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to flight, fly by gaining support from the Atmosphere of Earth, air. It counters the force of gravity by using either Buoyancy, static lift or the Lift (force), dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, i ...
, other missiles or flying objects. It is a type of anti-aircraft system and missiles have replaced most other forms of anti-aircraft weapons due to the increased range and accuracy. Anti-aircraft guns are being used only for specialized close-in firing roles. Missiles can be mounted in clusters on vehicles or towed on trailers and can be hand operated by infantry. SAMs frequently use solid-propellants and may be guided by radar or infrared sensors or by a human operator using optical tracking.


Surface-to-surface

A surface-to-surface missile (SSM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground or the sea and strike targets on land. They may be fired from hand-held or vehicle mounted devices, from fixed installations or from a ship. They are often powered by a rocket engine or sometimes fired by an explosive charge, since the launching platform is typically stationary or moving slowly. They usually have fins and/or wings for lift and stability, although hyper-velocity or short-ranged missiles may use body lift or fly a ballistic trajectory. Most anti-tank and anti-ship missiles are part of surface-to-surface missile systems.


Anti-satellite

An anti-satellite weapon (ASAT) is a space weapon designed to incapacitate or destroy satellites for strategic or tactical purposes. Although no ASAT system has been utilized in
warfare War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of State (polity), states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or betwe ...
, a few countries have successfully shot down their own satellites to demonstrate their ASAT capabilities in a show of force. ASATs have also been used to remove decommissioned satellites. ASAT roles include defensive measures against an adversary's space-based and nuclear weapons, a force multiplier for a nuclear first strike, a countermeasure against an adversary's anti-ballistic missile defense (ABM), an asymmetric counter to a technologically superior adversary, and a counter-value weapon.


See also

* Vertical launching system


References


External links

* * {{Authority control Ammunition Explosive weapons