Mirrors for princes ( la, specula principum) or mirrors of princes, are an educational literary

genre Genre () is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other for ...

, in a loose sense of the word, of

political Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...

writings during the

Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the Mi ...

, the

High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the period of European history that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and were followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended around AD 150 ...

, the

late middle ages The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renai ...

and the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...

. They are part of the broader speculum or mirror literature genre. The term itself is medieval, as it appears as early as the 12th century, under the words ''speculum regum'', and may have been used earlier than that. The genre concept may have come from the popular speculum literature that was popular between the 12th through 16th centuries, which focused on knowledge of a particular subject matter. These texts most frequently take the form of textbooks which directly instruct kings, princes or lesser rulers on certain aspects of

governance Governance is the process of interactions through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society over a social system ( family, tribe, formal or informal organization, a territory or across territories). It is done by the gove ...

and behaviour. But in a broader sense the term is also used to cover histories or literary works aimed at creating images of kings for imitation or avoidance. Authors often composed such "mirrors" at the accession of a new king, when a young and inexperienced ruler was about to come to

power Power most often refers to: * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events ** Abusive power Power may a ...

. One could view them as a species of prototypical self-help book or study of

leadership Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, encompasses the ability of an individual, group or organization to "lead", influence or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The word "leadership" often gets vi ...

before the concept of a "leader" became more generalised than the concept of a

monarchical A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy) ...

head-of-state. One of the earliest works was written by

Sedulius Scottus Sedulius Scotus or Scottus ( fl. 840–860) was an Irish teacher, Latin grammarian, and scriptural commentator who lived in the 9th century. During the reign of the Emperor Lothair (840–855), he was one of a colony of Irish teachers at Liège. ...

( 840–860), the Irish poet associated with the Pangur Bán gloss poem ( 9th century). Possibly the best known European "mirror" is ''

The Prince ''The Prince'' ( it, Il Principe ; la, De Principatibus) is a 16th-century political treatise written by Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli as an instruction guide for new princes and royals. The general theme of ''The ...

'' ( 1513) by Niccolo Machiavelli, although this was not the most typical example.

Antiquity

Greek and Roman

Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; grc, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Greek mercenary armies o ...

, '' The Education of Cyrus'' (c. 370BC) * Isocrates, ''To Nicocles'' and ''Evagoras'' * Philodemus, ''The Good King According to Homer'' *

Dio Chrysostom Dio Chrysostom (; el, Δίων Χρυσόστομος ''Dion Chrysostomos''), Dion of Prusa or Cocceianus Dio (c. 40 – c. 115 AD), was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD. Eighty of his ...

, ''The First Discourse on Kingship'' and ''The Second Discourse on Kingship'' and ''The Third Discourse on Kingship'' and ''The Fourth Discourse on Kingship'' *

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...

, '' De Officiis'' (44BC) *

Seneca Seneca may refer to: People and language * Seneca (name), a list of people with either the given name or surname * Seneca people, one of the six Iroquois tribes of North America ** Seneca language, the language of the Seneca people Places Extrat ...

, '' De Clementia'' (55-56AD) *

Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for hi ...

, ''

Moralia The ''Moralia'' ( grc, Ἠθικά ''Ethika''; loosely translated as "Morals" or "Matters relating to customs and mores") is a group of manuscripts dating from the 10th–13th centuries, traditionally ascribed to the 1st-century Greek scholar Pl ...

'' (c.100AD) * Eusebius of Caesarea's ''

Life of Constantine ''Life of Constantine the Great'' ( grc-gre, Βίος Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου; la, Vita Constantini) is a panegyric written in Greek in honor of Constantine the Great by Eusebius of Caesarea in the 4th century AD. It was never co ...

'' may be a mirror for princes. This text's precise genre, audience, and aims has been a subject of scholarly controversy. (c. 339AD) * Ambrose, ''De officiis ministrorum'' (c. 391AD) although the book is for clergy, many of its lessons can be applied to secular lords due to its inspiration and criticism of Cicero's original. * Augustine of Hippo,

The City of God ''On the City of God Against the Pagans'' ( la, De civitate Dei contra paganos), often called ''The City of God'', is a book of Christian philosophy written in Latin by Augustine of Hippo in the early 5th century AD. The book was in response ...

, Book V, chapter 24, "The true felicity of Christian Emperors." (c.413-426AD)

Indian

Vishnu Sharma Sharma (Sanskrit: विष्णुशर्मन् / विष्णुशर्मा) was an Indian scholar and author who wrote the '' Panchatantra'', a collection of fables. Works Panchatantra is one of the most widely translated non-r ...

, '' Panchatantra'' (Between 200 BC - 300AD) *

Chanakya Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭil ...

, '' Arthashastra'' (Between 200BC - 300AD) * Narayan Pandit, '' Hitopdesha'' (c. 770 - 860AD)

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

* Gregory of Tours' ''History of the Franks'' (late 6th century) which warns against internal strife. *'' De duodecim abusivis saeculi'', 'On the twelve abuses of the world' (7th century), a Hiberno-Latin treatise by an anonymous Irish author sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Cyprian. This work, though not a 'mirror for princes' per se, was to be of great influence on the development of the 'genre' as it took place on the Continent. * Bede's ''

Ecclesiastical History of the English People The ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'' ( la, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum), written by Bede in about AD 731, is a history of the Christian Churches in England, and of England generally; its main focus is on the conflict b ...

'' (731AD) specifically states that the purpose of the study of history is to present examples for either imitation or avoidance. Carolingian texts. Notable examples of Carolingian textbooks for kings, counts and other laymen include: * Cathwulf, ''Epistolae'' (775) written for

Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first ...

. * Paulinus of Aquileia, ''Liber exhortationis'' (795), for Count Heiric of Friuli. *

Alcuin Alcuin of York (; la, Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus; 735 – 19 May 804) – also called Ealhwine, Alhwin, or Alchoin – was a scholar, clergyman, poet, and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student o ...

, ''De virtutibus et vitiis'' (c. 799–800), written for Count Wido of Brittany. * Smaragdus of Saint-Mihiel, ''Via regia'' (813), arguably the first true European mirror for princes, dedicated to

Louis the Pious Louis the Pious (german: Ludwig der Fromme; french: Louis le Pieux; 16 April 778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aqui ...

, when king of Aquitania. * Einhard's ''

Vita Karoli Magni ''Vita Karoli Magni'' (''Life of Charlemagne'') is a biography of Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor, written by Einhard.Ogg, p. 109 The ''Life of Charlemagne'' is a 33 chapter long account starting with the full of the Mero ...

'' (c. 814) which idolises

's reign as something for other rulers to aspire to. * Jonas of Orléans, ''De Institutione Laicali'' (818-828), (originally) written for Count Matfrid of Orléans. * Jonas of Orléans, ''De Institutione Regia'' (c. 831), written for

Pepin I of Aquitaine Pepin I or Pepin I of Aquitaine (French: ''Pépin''; 797 – 13 December 838) was King of Aquitaine and Duke of Maine. Pepin was the second son of Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye. When his father assigne ...

, apparently on the basis of a council at Orléans. * Dhuoda, (841-843) ''Liber manualis'', written for her son William. * Agobard of Lyons, his letters, ''A Comparison of Ecclesiastical and Political Government and Wherein the Dignity of the Church Outshines the Majesty of Empires'' and the ''Liber Apologeticus''. *

, ''De rectoribus christianis'' 'On Christian rulers' (c. 855-9), addressed to King

Lothar II Lothair II (835 – 8 August 869) was the king of Lotharingia from 855 until his death. He was the second son of Emperor Lothair I and Ermengarde of Tours. He was married to Teutberga (died 875), daughter of Boso the Elder. Reign For political ...

of Lotharingia. * Hincmar of Reims, ''De regis persona'' 'The Person of the King' * Hincmar of Reims, '' De ordine palatii'' 'On the management of the palace' (882), which sets out the moral duties of a king and includes an account of the organisation of the palace. Irish texts *see ''De duodecim abusivis saeculi'' above. The vernacular mirrors differ from most texts mentioned here in that the ones who are described as giving and receiving advice are commonly legendary figures. *''Audacht Morainn'' ('The Testament of Morand'), written c. 700, an Old Irish text which has been called a forerunner of the 'mirrors for princes'. The legendary wise judge Morand is said to have sent advice to Feradach Find Fechtnach when the latter was about to be made King of Tara. *''Tecosca Cormaic'', 'The Instructions of Cormac', in which the speaker

Cormac mac Airt Cormac mac Airt, also known as Cormac ua Cuinn (grandson of Conn) or Cormac Ulfada (long beard), was, according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition, a High King of Ireland. He is probably the most famous of the ancient High Kings ...

is made to instruct his son Cairbre Lifechair about a variety of matters. *''Bríatharthecosc Con Culainn'' 'The precept-instruction of Cúchulainn' (interpolated in ''

Serglige Con Culainn ''Serglige Con Culainn'' ( en, The Sick-Bed of Cú Chulainn or The Wasting Sickness of Cúchulainn), also known as ''Oenét Emire'' ( en, The Only Jealousy of Emer) is a narrative from the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. It tells of a curse tha ...

''), addressed to Lugaid Réoderg. *''Tecosc Cuscraid'' 'The instruction of Cuscraid' *''Senbríathra Fithail'' 'The ancient precepts of Fíthal' *''Briathra Flainn Fína'' 'The Sayings of Flann Fína'

High and Late Middle Ages

Stephen I of Hungary Stephen I, also known as King Saint Stephen ( hu, Szent István király ; la, Sanctus Stephanus; sk, Štefan I. or Štefan Veľký; 975 – 15 August 1038), was the last Grand Prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the ...

, '' Admonitions'' (1010s), written for his son and

heir presumptive An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an heir apparent or a new heir presumptive with a better claim to the position in question. ...

Saint Emeric Emeric ( hu, Szent Imre herceg), also ''Emericus,'' ''Emerick, Emery, Emory'', and venerated as Saint Emeric (c. 1007 – 2 September 1031) was the son of King Stephen I of Hungary and Giselle of Bavaria. Life Family Emeric is assumedSause ...

. * John of Salisbury, ''Policraticus ='' 'The Statesman's Book' (1159). *

Godfrey of Viterbo Godfrey of ViterboAlso called Geoffrey of Viterbo, in Italian ''Goffredo da Viterbo'' and in German ''Gottfried von Viterbo'', from Latin ''Gaufridus'', ''Godefridus'' or ''Gotefredus Viterbensis''. (c. 1120 – c. 1196) was a Roman Catholic chroni ...

, ''Speculum regum'' (c. 1183), dedicated to his

Staufian The Hohenstaufen dynasty (, , ), also known as the Staufer, was a noble family of unclear origin that rose to rule the Duchy of Swabia from 1079, and to royal rule in the Holy Roman Empire during the Middle Ages from 1138 until 1254. The dynas ...

imperial patrons, father Frederick Barbarossa and son Henry VI. *

Pseudo-Plutarch Pseudo-Plutarch is the conventional name given to the actual, but unknown, authors of a number of pseudepigrapha (falsely attributed works) attributed to Plutarch but now known to have not been written by him. Some of these works were included in s ...

, ''Institutio Traiani'' (first quoted in John of Salisbury's ''Policraticus''). *

Gerald of Wales Gerald of Wales ( la, Giraldus Cambrensis; cy, Gerallt Gymro; french: Gerald de Barri; ) was a Cambro-Norman priest and historian. As a royal clerk to the king and two archbishops, he travelled widely and wrote extensively. He studied and taugh ...

, '' De instructione principis'' (c. 1193) * Jean de Limoges, '' Somnium morale Pharaonis'' (c. 1234-60), written for Thibaut IV or Thibaut V *'' Konungs skuggsjá'' or ''

Speculum regale The term speculum, Latin for "mirror", and its plural specula, may refer to: * ''Speculum'' (butterfly), a skipper butterfly genus in the tribe Erynnini * ''Speculum'' (journal), a journal of medieval studies published by the Medieval Academy of ...

'', (c. 1250) Norwegian treatise originally written for King Magnús lagabœtir. *

Vincent of Beauvais Vincent of Beauvais ( la, Vincentius Bellovacensis or ''Vincentius Burgundus''; c. 1264) was a Dominican friar at the Cistercian monastery of Royaumont Abbey, France. He is known mostly for his ''Speculum Maius'' (''Great mirror''), a major work ...

, ''De eruditione filiorum nobilium'' = 'On the Education of Noble Children' (c. 1250). *

Guibert of Tournai Guibert of Tournai (Latin: ''Guibertus'' or ''Gilbertus Tournacensis''; c. 1200 – 1284) was a French Franciscan friar, known for his sermons and other writings. Life Guibert was born near Tournai around 1200. He attended the University of Pari ...

, ''Eruditio regum et principum = The Education of Kings and Princes' (1259), written for Louis IX. *

, ''De modo addiscendi'' = 'On the Method of Learning' (c. 1260) written for John de Dampierre, provost of Bruges, son of

Guy of Flanders Guy of Dampierre (french: Gui de Dampierre; nl, Gwijde van Dampierre) ( – 7 March 1305, Compiègne) was the Count of Flanders (1251–1305) and List of rulers of Namur, Marquis of Namur (1264–1305). He was a prisoner of the French when ...

. *

Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known wit ...

, ''De regno'' (c. 1260), often conflated with the ''De regimine principum'' of

Ptolemy of Lucca Bartholomew of Lucca, born Bartolomeo Fiadoni, and also known as Tolomeo da Lucca or Ptolemy da Lucca (c. 1236 – c. 1327), was a medieval Italian historian. Biography Born in Lucca, probably in 1236, at an early age Bartholomew entered the ...

* Vincent de Beauvais, ''De morali principis institutione ='' 'On the Moral Instruction of the Prince' (c. 1262), probably written for Louis IX. * William Peraldus, ''De eruditione principum'' = 'On the Education of Princes' (c. 1265), formerly attributed to

. *

Brunetto Latini Brunetto Latini (who signed his name ''Burnectus Latinus'' in Latin and ''Burnecto Latino'' in Italian; –1294) was an Italian philosopher, scholar, notary, politician and statesman. Life Brunetto Latini was born in Florence in 1220 to a Tusc ...

, ''Li livres dou trésor'' (1266), written for

Charles of Anjou Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–85) and Forcalquier (1246–48, 1256–85) ...

. *

Giles of Rome Giles of Rome O.S.A. (Latin: ''Aegidius Romanus''; Italian: ''Egidio Colonna''; c. 1243 – 22 December 1316), was a Medieval philosopher and Scholastic theologian and a friar of the Order of St Augustine, who was also appointed to the ...

, ''De regimine principum'' = 'On the Rule of Princes' (c. 1278), written for Philip the Fair. * Engelbert of Admont, ''Speculum virtutum moralium'' (c. 1310), written for

Otto, Duke of Austria Otto, ''the Merry'' (german: der Fröhliche; 23 July 1301 – 17 February 1339), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria and Styria from 1330, as well as Duke of Carinthia from 1335 until his death. He ruled jointly with his elder b ...

and

Albert II, Duke of Austria Albert II (12 December 1298 – 16 August 1358), known as ''the Wise'' or ''the Lame'', a member of the House of Habsburg, was duke of Austria and Styria from 1330, as well as duke of Carinthia and margrave of Carniola from 1335 until his death ...

* Paolino Veneto, ''Trattato de regimine rectoris'' (1313×1315), written for the Marino Badoer,

duke of Crete This is a list of the rulers and governors of the island of Crete throughout its history. Antiquity Crete was conquered for the Roman Republic by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus in 69 BC and united with the Cyrenaica in the province of Cret ...

* William of Pagula, ''Speculum regis'', written for

Edward III of England Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring ...

(c. 1331). *

Don Juan Manuel Don Juan Manuel (5 May 128213 June 1348) was a Spanish medieval writer, nephew of Alfonso X of Castile, son of Manuel of Castile and Beatrice of Savoy. He inherited from his father the great Lordship of Villena, receiving the titles of Lord, D ...

, ''

Tales of Count Lucanor Don Juan Manuel's ''Tales of Count Lucanor'', in Spanish ''Libro de los ejemplos del conde Lucanor y de Patronio'' (''Book of the Examples of Count Lucanor and of Patronio''), also commonly known as ''El Conde Lucanor, Libro de Patronio'', or ' ...

'' (1335). * Alvarus Pelagius, ''Speculum regum'' (1340s), written for Alfonso XI of Castile. *'' Um styrilsi kununga ok höfþinga'' (1350s), Old Swedish treatise *''The III Consideracions Right Necesserye to the Good Governaunce of a Prince'' (c. 1350), a translation of a French treatise from 1347, intended for King

John II of France John II (french: Jean II; 26 April 1319 – 8 April 1364), called John the Good (French: ''Jean le Bon''), was King of France from 1350 until his death in 1364. When he came to power, France faced several disasters: the Black Death, which killed ...

. *

Philip of Leyden Philip of Leyden (c. 1326 – 9 June 1382) was a Dutch jurist who wrote a political treatise, ''De cura reipublicae et sorte principantis'' ("On the care of the state and the role of the ruler"). Its key sentence is, "Princes have certain rights w ...

, ''De cura reipublicae et sorte principantis ("On the care of the state and the role of the ruler")'' (c. 1355), dedicated to William V of Holland * Evrart de Trémaugon, ''Le songe du verger'' (1376). *''Der Fürsten reget'', (c. 1370-1380) dedicated to William, Duke of Austria * Christine de Pizan, ''Epistre Othea a Hector'' (c. 1400), ''Livre du corps de policie'' (1407), ''Livre de la paix'' (between 1412 and 1414). * Pierre Salmon, ''Dialogues'' (1409, rev. 1412/15), dedicated to

Charles VI of France Charles VI (3 December 136821 October 1422), nicknamed the Beloved (french: le Bien-Aimé) and later the Mad (french: le Fol or ''le Fou''), was King of France from 1380 until his death in 1422. He is known for his mental illness and psychotic ...

Thomas Hoccleve Thomas Hoccleve or Occleve (1368 or 1369–1426) was an English poet and clerk, who became a key figure in 15th-century Middle English literature. His ''Regement of Princes or De Regimine Principum'' is a homily on virtues and vices, written for ...

, ''De regimine principum'' (early 1410s) written for Henry V of England. * Duarte of Portugal, ''Leal Conselheiro'' (1438), a practical manual of ethical guidance for the nobility of Portugal. *

John Ireland John Benjamin Ireland (January 30, 1914 – March 21, 1992) was a Canadian actor. He was nominated for an Academy Award for his performance in ''All the King's Men'' (1949), making him the first Vancouver-born actor to receive an Oscar nomin ...

, ''The Meroure of Wysedome'', (1490) written for James IV of Scotland. * Phillipus de Bergamo, ''Spiegel der regyrunge'' (15th century) translated into middle German *''Eyn kurz ordenunge in gemeyne allen den die da regieren huß, dorffere oder stede'', (15th century) short text written on how to rule a household, village or city *''Von der regeronge der stede'', (15th century) text written on how to govern a city

Renaissance

* John Skelton, '' Speculum principis'' (1501), lost work written for the then future Henry VIII. A copy of this treatise, which may not be entirely the same as that presented to Henry, resides with the British Museum. *

Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (; ; English: Erasmus of Rotterdam or Erasmus;''Erasmus'' was his baptismal name, given after St. Erasmus of Formiae. ''Desiderius'' was an adopted additional name, which he used from 1496. The ''Roterodamus'' w ...

, '' Institutio principis Christiani'' 'Education of a Christian Prince' (1516), written as advice to King Charles of Spain (the later

Charles V Charles V may refer to: * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise * Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690) * Infa ...

). *

Martin Luther Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Lutherani ...

. ''

On Secular Authority On, on, or ON may refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * On (band), a solo project of Ken Andrews * ''On'' (EP), a 1993 EP by Aphex Twin * ''On'' (Echobelly album), 1995 * ''On'' (Gary Glitter album), 2001 * ''On'' (Imperial Teen album), 200 ...

'' (1523), a letter dedicated to

John, Elector of Saxony Johann (30 June 146816 August 1532), known as Johann the Steadfast or Johann the Constant (''Johann, der Beständige''), was Elector of Saxony from 1525 until 1532 from the House of Wettin. He is notable for organising the Lutheran Church in th ...

Baldassare Castiglione Baldassare Castiglione, Count of Casatico (; 6 December 1478 – 2 February 1529),Dates of birth and death, and cause of the latter, fro, ''Italica'', Rai International online. was an Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a prominent Renaissanc ...

's ''

The Book of the Courtier ''The Book of the Courtier'' ( it, Il Cortegiano ) by Baldassare Castiglione is a lengthy philosophical dialogue on the topic of what constitutes an ideal courtier or (in the third chapter) court lady, worthy to befriend and advise a Prince or pol ...

'' (1528), based on experiences of the courts of Urbino. *

Antonio de Guevara Antonio de Guevara (c. 1481 – 3 April 1545) was a Spanish bishop and author. In 1527 he was named royal chronicler to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. His first book ''Libro áureo'' first appeared in pirated editions the following year. This pseu ...

, ''Relox de príncipes'' (1529), inspired by and dedicated to

, a bestseller of its times, translated during the 16th Century to English, Latin, Italian, German, French and Dutch. * Justus Menius, '' Oeconomia christiana'' (1529), dedicated to

Sibylle of Cleves Sibylle of Cleves (17 January 1512 – 21 February 1554) was electress consort of Saxony. Born in Düsseldorf,At the time, the area was in the Duchy of Berg. she was the eldest daughter of John III of the House of La Marck, Duke of Jülich ...

for a right ordering of a Christian ''Lutheran'' household * Machiavelli, '' Il Principe'' (c. 1513, published in 1532). *

George Buchanan George Buchanan ( gd, Seòras Bochanan; February 1506 – 28 September 1582) was a Scottish historian and humanist scholar. According to historian Keith Brown, Buchanan was "the most profound intellectual sixteenth century Scotland produced." ...

, '' De iure regni apud Scotos'' (1579), a work in the form of a Socratic dialogue on ideal kingship dedicated to the young

James VI James is a common English language surname and given name: *James (name), the typically masculine first name James * James (surname), various people with the last name James James or James City may also refer to: People * King James (disambiguat ...

of Scotland * Giovanni Botero, '' The Reason of State'' (1589), a criticism of Machiavelli's Prince. *Johann Damgaard, ''Alithia'' (1597), written for the young Danish monarch

King Christian IV Christian IV (12 April 1577 – 28 February 1648) was King of Denmark and Norway and Duke of Holstein and Schleswig from 1588 until his death in 1648. His reign of 59 years, 330 days is the longest of Danish monarchs and Scandinavian monar ...

. *

Juan de Mariana Juan de Mariana, , also known as Father Mariana (25 September 1536 – 17 February 1624), was a Spanish Jesuit priest, Scholastic, historian, and member of the Monarchomachs. Life Juan de Mariana was born in Talavera, Kingdom of Toledo. He st ...

, '' De rege et regis institutione'' (Toledo, 1598); ''The King and the Education of the King'' * James VI of Scotland, ''

Basilikon Doron The ''Basilikon Doron'' is a treatise on government written by King James VI of Scotland (who would later also become James I of England), in 1599. Background ''Basilikon Doron'' (Βασιλικὸν Δῶρον) means "royal gift" in Ancient G ...

'' (1599) written as a gift to his eldest son. *

Francisco de Quevedo Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Santibáñez Villegas, Knight of the Order of Santiago (; 14 September 1580 – 8 September 1645) was a Spanish nobleman, politician and writer of the Baroque era. Along with his lifelong rival, Luis de Góngora ...

, La política de Dios, y gobierno de Cristo (1617–1626) ''The Politics of God and the Government of Christ'' * Hugo Grotius, ''

De jure belli ac pacis ''De iure belli ac pacis'' (English: ''On the Law of War and Peace'') is a 1625 book in Latin, written by Hugo Grotius and published in Paris, on the legal status of war. It is now regarded as a foundational work in international law. The work t ...

'' (1625) dedicated to

Louis XIII of France Louis XIII (; sometimes called the Just; 27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 until his death in 1643 and King of Navarre (as Louis II) from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown ...

* John Gauden, ''

Eikon Basilike The ''Eikon Basilike'' (Greek: Εἰκὼν Βασιλική, the "Royal Portrait"), ''The Pourtraicture of His Sacred Majestie in His Solitudes and Sufferings'', is a purported spiritual autobiography attributed to King Charles I of England. ...

'' (1649) published after

Charles I of England Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. He was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after hi ...

was beheaded.

Enlightenment

* Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, '' Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture'' (1709) dedicated to the future

Louis XV of France Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (french: le Bien-Aimé), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reache ...

. * Frederick II of Prussia, ''

Anti-Machiavel ''Anti-Machiavel'' is an 18th-century essay by Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and patron of Voltaire, consisting of a chapter-by-chapter rebuttal of ''The Prince'', the 16th-century book by Niccolò Machiavelli. It was first published in S ...

'' (1740) a critique of Machiavelli's Prince. * Frederick II of Prussia, ''Letter addressed to his nephew, Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg'' (6 February 1744)

Modern

Walter Bagehot Walter Bagehot ( ; 3 February 1826 – 24 March 1877) was an English journalist, businessman, and essayist, who wrote extensively about government, economics, literature and race. He is known for co-founding the ''National Review'' in 1855 ...

, '' The English Constitution'' (1867) studied by generations of British monarchs for its insight on their role in a constitutional monarchy.

Byzantine texts

* Synesius, Bishop of Cyrene, ''De regno'', speech delivered to emperor

Arcadius Arcadius ( grc-gre, Ἀρκάδιος ; 377 – 1 May 408) was Roman emperor from 383 to 408. He was the eldest son of the ''Augustus'' Theodosius I () and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and the brother of Honorius (). Arcadius ruled the ...

. * Agapetus the deacon, speech delivered to emperor

Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renova ...

. (c. 530s) *

Basil I the Macedonian Basil I, called the Macedonian ( el, Βασίλειος ὁ Μακεδών, ''Basíleios ō Makedṓn'', 811 – 29 August 886), was a Byzantine Emperor who reigned from 867 to 886. Born a lowly peasant in the theme of Macedonia, he rose in the ...

, Admonitory chapters I and II to his son emperor

Leo VI the Wise Leo VI, called the Wise ( gr, Λέων ὁ Σοφός, Léōn ho Sophós, 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well ...

Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe K ...

, '' De Administrando Imperio'', a domestic and foreign policy manual for the use of Constantine's son and successor, the Emperor

Romanos II Romanos II Porphyrogenitus ( gr, Ρωμανός, 938 – 15 March 963) was Byzantine Emperor from 959 to 963. He succeeded his father Constantine VII at the age of twenty-one and died suddenly and mysteriously four years later. His son Bas ...

. (948 - 952) *

Kekaumenos Kekaumenos ( el, Κεκαυμένος) is the family name of the otherwise unidentified Byzantine author of the '' Strategikon'', a manual on military and household affairs composed c. 1078. He was apparently of Georgian-Armenian origin and the gra ...

, '' Strategikon'' (1075/1078), chapters 77 - 91. *Archbishop

Theophylact of Ohrid Theophylact ( gr, Θεοφύλακτος, bg, Теофилакт; around 1055after 1107) was a Byzantine archbishop of Ohrid and commentator on the Bible. Life Theophylact was born in the mid-11th century at Euripus (Chalcis) in Euboea, at the ...

, ''Paideia Basilike'' (Lat. ''Institutio Regia'') (c. 1088), addressed to his pupil Constantine Doukas, son of Emperor

Michael VII Doukas Michael VII Doukas or Ducas ( gr, Μιχαήλ Δούκας), nicknamed Parapinakes ( gr, Παραπινάκης, lit. "minus a quarter", with reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was the senior Byzantine e ...

. *''Spaneas'' or ''Didaskalia Parainetike'', modelled on the Isocratean ''Ad Demonicum'' (12th century) *

Nikephoros Blemmydes Nikephoros Blemmydes (Latinized as Nicephorus Blemmydes; el, Νικηφόρος Βλεμμύδης, 1197–1272) was a 13th-century Byzantine author. Biography Blemmydes was born in 1197 in Constantinople as the second child of a physician. After ...

, ''Andrias Basilikos'' (Lat. ''Regia statua'', "Statue of a King"), written for Theodore II Laskaris, the future

Nicaean emperor The Empire of Nicaea or the Nicene Empire is the conventional historiographic name for the largest of the three Byzantine Greek''A Short history of Greece from early times to 1964'' by W. A. Heurtley, H. C. Darby, C. W. Crawley, C. M. Woodhouse ...

(c. 1250) * Thomas Magistros, ''La '' addressed to Andronikos II Palaiologos. (14th century) * Manuel II Palaiologos, ''Paideia Regia'' dedicated to his son,

John VIII Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( gr, Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος, Iōánnēs Palaiológos; 18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448) was the penultimate Byzantine emperor, ruling from 1425 to 1448. Biography John VIII was ...

. (15th century)

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

Ewen-Nāmag
(“Book of Rules”): On the Sasanian manners, customs, skills, and arts, sciences, etc. (Between 3rd - 7th century AD)
Andarz
literature. (Between 3rd - 7th century AD)

Islamic texts

* Abd al-Hamid al-Katib, letter to Abdallah son of the Umayyad caliph

Marwan II Marwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam ( ar, مروان بن محمد بن مروان بن الحكم, Marwān ibn Muḥammad ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam; – 6 August 750), commonly known as Marwan II, was the fourteenth and last caliph of ...

(c. 750) * Ibn al-Muqaffa, '' Kalila wa Dimna'' (c. 750) * Abu Yahya ibn al-Batriq (d. 815) ''Sirr al-Asrar'' () ' Secretum Secretorum' *

Al-Farabi Abu Nasr Muhammad Al-Farabi ( fa, ابونصر محمد فارابی), ( ar, أبو نصر محمد الفارابي), known in the West as Alpharabius; (c. 872 – between 14 December, 950 and 12 January, 951)PDF version was a renowned early Isl ...

(c. 872–950), ''Fusul al-Madani'' 'Aphorisms of a Statesman' * Abu'l-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Maghribi (981–1027), ''Kitab fi'l-si'yasa'' *

Al-Tha'alibi Al-Tha'alibi (961–1038), was a writer famous for his anthologies and collections of epigrams. As a writer of prose and verse in his own right, distinction between his and the work of others is sometimes lacking, as was the practice of write ...

(d. 1038), ''Ādāb al-mulūk'' * Al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik (fl.1053, Damascus), ''Mukhtār al-Hikam wa-Maḥāsin al-Kalim'' () 'Selected Maxims and Aphorisms' *'' Qabus nama'' (1082) – a Persian example of the genre * Nizam al-Mulk, '' Siyāset-nāmeh'' 'Book of Government' (c. 1090) (Persian) * Al-Imam al-Hadrami (d. 1095) - '' Kitâb al-Ishâra'' *

Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian poly ...

(1058–1111), ''Nasihat al-muluk'' 'Counsel to Princes' (Persian) *

Yusuf Balasaghuni Yusuf ( ar, يوسف ') is a male name of Arabic origin meaning " God increases" (in piety, power and influence).From the Hebrew יהוה להוסיף ''YHWH Lhosif'' meaning "YHWH will increase/add". It is the Arabic equivalent of the Hebrew nam ...

, ''

Kutadgu Bilig The ''Kutadgu Bilig'' or ''Qutadğu Bilig'' (; Middle Turkic: ), is an 11th century work written by Yūsuf Balasaguni for the prince of Kashgar. The text reflects the author's and his society's beliefs, feelings and practices with regard to quite ...

'' (11th century) *

At-Turtushi 'Abu Bakr Muhammad at-Turtushi () (1059 – 1126 CE; 451 AH – 520 AH ), better known as At-Turtushi was one of the most prominent Andalusian political philosophers of the twelfth century. His book Kitāb Sirāj al-Mulūk (The Lamp of Kings) ...

, '' Siraj al-Muluk'' 'The Lamp of Kings' (c. 1121) * Ibn Ẓafar al-Ṣiqillī's (12th century) ''Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'udwan al-atba'' 'Consolation for the Ruler during the Hostility of Subjects'; published in English (1852) as, ''Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort'' *''Bahr Al-Fava'id'' 'Sea of (Precious) Virtues', compiled in the 12th century. *

Ibn Arabi Ibn ʿArabī ( ar, ابن عربي, ; full name: , ; 1165–1240), nicknamed al-Qushayrī (, ) and Sulṭān al-ʿĀrifīn (, , ' Sultan of the Knowers'), was an Arab Andalusian Muslim scholar, mystic, poet, and philosopher, extremely influen ...

, ''Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbidrat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah)'' (1194-1201AD/590-598AH) * Saadi's Gulistan'', chapter I, "The Manners of Kings", (1258, Persian). * Hussain Vaiz Kashifi's Aklhaq i Muhsini (composed in Persian AH 900/AD 1495), translated into English as "The Morals Of The Beneficent" in the mid 19th century by

Henry George Keene Henry George Keene (30 September 1781–29 January 1864) was an English employee of the East India Company, as soldier, civil servant, and orientalist. He was known as a Persian scholar, and also was a churchman and academic. Life Born on 30 Sep ...

Lütfi Pasha Lütfi Pasha ( ota, لطفى پاشا, ''Luṭfī Paşa''; Modern Turkish: ''Lütfi Paşa'', more fully ''Damat Çelebi Lütfi Paşa''; 1488 – 27 March 1564, Didymoteicho) was an Ottoman Albanian statesman, general, and Grand Vizier of the O ...

''Asafname'' (Mid-16th century) *Muhammad al-Baqir Najm-I Sani, ''Mau‘izah-i Jahangiri'' 'Admonition of Jahāngír' or 'Advice on the art of governance' (1612 - 1613).

Slavonic texts

*Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople, letter addressed to Boris I of Bulgaria (867AD) *Poucheniye (Instruction) of Vladmir Monomakh to his children (1120s). * Izmaragd (c. 14th century) moral guide and education for children *

Patriarch Antony IV of Constantinople Antony IV (? – May 1397) was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople for two terms, from January 1389 to July 1390, and again from early 1391 until his death. He was originally a hieromonk, possibly from the Dionysiou monastery in Mount ...

, letter to Vasily I of Moscow (1393). *

Domostroy ''Domostroy'' ( rus, Домострой, p=dəmɐˈstroj, ''Domestic Order'') is a 16th-century Russian set of household rules, instructions and advice pertaining to various religious, social, domestic, and family matters of the Russian society. ...

(c. 15th century) *

Neagoe Basarab Neagoe Basarab (; c.1459 – 15 September 1521) was the Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia between 1512 and 1521. Born into the boyar family of the Craioveşti (his reign marks the climax of the family's political influence) as the son of Pârvu Cr ...

(1512–1521), ''The teachings of Neagoe Basarab to his son Theodosie'', one of the earliest literary works in

Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and s ...

* Mikhail Lomonosov, (1760) ''Panegyric to the Sovereign Emperor, Peter the Great''

Chinese texts

Ancient

* Tao Te Ching –

Lao Tzu Laozi (), also known by numerous other names, was a semilegendary ancient Chinese Taoist philosopher. Laozi ( zh, ) is a Chinese honorific, generally translated as "the Old Master". Traditional accounts say he was born as in the state of ...

Chinese philosopher (Can be interpreted as a mystical text, philosophical text, or political treatise on rulership) (late 4th century BC) * Mencius – moral advice for a ruler (late 4th century BC) * Han Fei Zi – Legalist text advice for a ruler and the art of statecraft (mid-3rd century BC) dedicated to

Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of " king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Empero ...

* The Book of Lord Shang (Multiple authors spanning centuries, starting from c. 330BC) text advice useful for a ruler and statecraft * Shizi (c. 330BC) particularly section 15, ''The Ruler's Governance''

Imperial Dynasties

Han Dynasty

* Lu Jia (c.200BC) ''Xin Yu'' 新语 ("New Discourses"), treatise on why empires rise and fall. *

Ban Biao Ban Biao (, 3–54 CE), courtesy name (), was a Chinese historian and politician born in what is now Xianyang, Shaanxi during the Han Dynasty. He was the nephew of Consort Ban, a famous poet and concubine to Emperor Cheng. Ban Biao began the ...

(c.50AD)

Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. ...

, Volume 23, Treatise on Punishment and Law *

(c.50AD) Treatise on the Mandate of Kings (王命論) covers the concept of sovereignty that would influence later Chinese texts.

Tang Dynasty

Ouyang Xun Ouyang Xun (; 557–641), courtesy name Xinben (), was a Chinese calligrapher, politician, and writer of the early Tang dynasty. He was born in Hunan, Changsha, to a family of government officials; and died in modern Anhui province. Achievements ...

(624AD) ''Yiwen leiju'' 藝文類聚 ("Classified collection based on the Classics and other literature") *

Kong Yingda Kong Yingda (; 574 – 648), courtesy names Chongyuan () and Zhongda (), was a Chinese philosopher during the Sui and Tang dynasty. An amorous Confucianist, who is considered one of the most influential Confucian scholars in Chinese history. H ...

(642AD) ''Wujing Zhengyi'' 五經正義 ("Correct Meaning of the Five Classics") * Liu Zhi (7th century AD) ''Zhengdian'' 政典 ("Manual of politics"), a political encyclopaedia useful for young boys taking the

Imperial Examination The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...

Song Dynasty

* Ouyang Xiu (1060AD) New Book of Tang, carries a treatise on how to select and appoint officials. *

Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the monumental history book ''Zizhi Tongjian''. Sima was ...

(1084AD)

Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song (960–1127), Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959&n ...

(''Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance'') *

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...

(1172AD)

Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu The ''Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu'' (資治通鑑綱目, "Outline and Details of the '' Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Government''"), also known as the ''Tongjian Gangmu'' or ''Gangmu'', is an 1172 Chinese history book based on Sima Guang's 1084 book '' ...

Zheng Qiao Zheng may refer to: *Zheng (surname), Chinese surname (鄭, 郑, ''Zhèng'') *Zheng County, former name of Zhengzhou, capital of Henan, China *Guzheng (), a Chinese zither with bridges *Qin Shi Huang (259 BC – 210 BC), emperor of the Qin Dynasty, ...

(12th century) ''Tongzhi'' 通治 ("Comprehensive Treatise on Government")

Ming Dynasty

Zhu Yuanzhang The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398. As famine, plagues and peasant revolts i ...

(1373AD) ''

Huang-Ming Zuxun The ''Huang-Ming Zuxun'' (''Instructions of the Ancestor of the August Ming'') were admonitions left by the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Chinese Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an im ...

Qing Dynasty

* Huang Zongxi (1661-62AD) '' Waiting for the Dawn

In popular culture

* ''Mirrors For Princes'' is the name of a 2010 cinematic work by

Lior Shamriz Lior Shamriz (born September 13, 1978) is a writer, producer, and film director. They reside in Santa Cruz, California. Career Born to an Iraqi-Iranian Jewish family in Ashkelon, a city in southern Israel, they skipped the army at 18 and moved to ...

. Parts of the text were based on the Instructions of Shuruppak and other Sumerian literature.

Antiquity

Greek and Roman

Indian

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

High and Late Middle Ages

Renaissance

Enlightenment

Modern

Byzantine texts

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

Islamic texts

Slavonic texts

Chinese texts

Ancient

Imperial Dynasties

Han Dynasty

Tang Dynasty

Song Dynasty

Ming Dynasty

Qing Dynasty

In popular culture

See also

References

Further reading