Miniaturized satellites
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A small satellite, miniaturized satellite, or smallsat is a
satellite A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioi ...
of low mass and size, usually under . While all such satellites can be referred to as "small", different classifications are used to categorize them based on
mass Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different eleme ...
. Satellites can be built small to reduce the large economic cost of
launch vehicle A launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket designed to carry a payload ( spacecraft or satellites) from the Earth's surface to outer space. Most launch vehicles operate from a launch pads, supported by a launch control center and ...
s and the costs associated with construction. Miniature satellites, especially in large numbers, may be more useful than fewer, larger ones for some purposes – for example, gathering of scientific data and
radio relay Radio stations that cannot communicate directly due to distance, terrain or other difficulties sometimes use an intermediate radio relay station to relay the signals. A radio relay receives weak signals and retransmits them, often in a different di ...
. Technical challenges in the construction of small satellites may include the lack of sufficient power storage or of room for a
propulsion system Propulsion is the generation of force by any combination of pushing or pulling to modify the translational motion of an object, which is typically a rigid body (or an articulated rigid body) but may also concern a fluid. The term is derived from ...
.


Rationales

One rationale for miniaturizing satellites is to reduce the cost; heavier satellites require larger rockets with greater thrust that also have greater cost to finance. In contrast, smaller and lighter satellites require smaller and cheaper launch vehicles and can sometimes be launched in multiples. They can also be launched 'piggyback', using excess capacity on larger launch vehicles. Miniaturized satellites allow for cheaper designs and ease of mass production. Another major reason for developing small satellites is the opportunity to enable missions that a larger satellite could not accomplish, such as: * Constellations for low data rate communications * Using formations to gather data from multiple points * In-orbit inspection of larger satellites * University-related research * Testing or qualifying new hardware before using it on a more expensive spacecraft


History

The
nanosatellite A small satellite, miniaturized satellite, or smallsat is a satellite of low mass and size, usually under . While all such satellites can be referred to as "small", different classifications are used to categorize them based on mass. Satellites ca ...
and microsatellite segments of the satellite launch industry have been growing rapidly in recent years. Development activity in the range has been significantly exceeding that in the range. In the range alone, fewer than 15 satellites were launched annually in 2000 to 2005, 34 in 2006, then fewer than 30 launches annually during 2007 to 2011. This rose to 34 launched in 2012 and 92 launched in 2013. European analyst Euroconsult projects more than 500 smallsats being launched in 2015–2019 with a market value estimated at . By mid-2015, many more launch options had become available for smallsats, and rides as
secondary payload Secondary payload, also known as rideshare payload, is a smaller-sized payload transported to orbit on a launch vehicle that is mostly paid for—and with the date and time of launch and the orbital trajectory determined—by the entity that co ...
s had become both greater in quantity and easier to schedule on shorter notice.


Classification groups


Small satellites

The term "small satellite", or sometimes "minisatellite", often refers to an artificial satellite with a
wet mass In aerospace engineering, mass ratio is a measure of the efficiency of a rocket. It describes how much more massive the vehicle is with propellant than without; that is, the ratio of the rocket's ''wet mass'' (vehicle plus contents plus propellan ...
(including fuel) between , but in other usage has come to mean any satellite under . Small satellite examples include Demeter, Essaim,
Parasol An umbrella or parasol is a folding canopy (building), canopy supported by wooden or metal ribs that is usually mounted on a wooden, metal, or plastic pole. It is designed to protect a person against rain or sunburn, sunlight. The term ''umbr ...
, Picard,
MICROSCOPE A microscope () is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisi ...
,
TARANIS In Celtic mythology, Taranis (Proto-Celtic: *''Toranos'', earlier ''*Tonaros''; Latin: Taranus, earlier Tanarus) is the god of thunder, who was worshipped primarily in Gaul, Hispania, Britain, and Ireland, but also in the Rhineland and Danube r ...
,
ELISA The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (, ) is a commonly used analytical biochemistry assay, first described by Eva Engvall and Peter Perlmann in 1971. The assay uses a solid-phase type of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to detect the presen ...
, SSOT, SMART-1, Spirale-A and -B, and
Starlink Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, providing satellite Internet access coverage to 45 countries. It also aims for global mobile phone service after 2023. SpaceX started launching Starlink satellites in 2019. As ...
satellites.


Small satellite launch vehicle

Although smallsats have traditionally been launched as secondary payloads on larger launch vehicles, a number of companies currently are developing or have developed launch vehicles specifically targeted at the smallsat market. In particular, the secondary payload paradigm does not provide the specificity required for many small satellites that have unique orbital and launch-timing requirements. Companies offering smallsat launch vehicles include: *
Rocket Lab Rocket Lab is a public American aerospace manufacturer and launch service provider, with a New Zealand subsidiary. The company operates lightweight Electron orbital rockets, which provide dedicated launches for small satellites. Rocket Lab also ...
's
Electron The electron ( or ) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no ...
(300 kg) *
Virgin Orbit Virgin Orbit is a company within the Virgin Group which launch service provider, provides launch services for small satellites. On January 17, 2021, their ''LauncherOne'' rocket successfully reached orbit for the first time, and successfully dep ...
's LauncherOne (500 kg) *Astra, Inc., Astra's Rockets by Astra, Rocket 3.3 (100 kg) *Vaya Space's Dauntless by Vaya Space, Dauntless (1000+ kg LEO 600+ kg SSO)


Microsatellites

The term "microsatellite" or "microsat" is usually applied to the name of an artificial satellite with a wet mass between . However, this is not an official convention and sometimes those terms can refer to satellites larger than that, or smaller than that (e.g., ). Sometimes, designs or proposed designs from some satellites of these types have microsatellites Satellite constellation, working together or in a Fractionated spacecraft, formation. The generic term "small satellite" or "smallsat" is also sometimes used, as is "satlet". Examples: Astrid (satellite), Astrid-1 and Astrid-2, as well as the set of satellites currently announced for ''LauncherOne'' (below) In 2018, the two Mars Cube One microsats—massing just each—became the first CubeSats to leave Earth orbit for use in interplanetary space. They flew on their way to Mars alongside the successful Mars ''InSight'' Mars lander, lander mission. The two microsats accomplished a Flyby (spaceflight), flyby of Mars in November 2018, and both continued communicating with ground stations on Earth through late December. Both went silent by early January 2019.


Microsatellite launch vehicle

A number of private spaceflight, commercial and military-contractor companies are currently developing microsatellite launch vehicles to perform the increasingly orbital trajectory, targeted launch requirements of microsatellites. While microsatellites have been carried to space for many years as secondary payloads aboard larger launch vehicle, launchers, the secondary payload paradigm does not provide the specificity required for many increasingly sophisticated small satellites that have unique orbital and launch-timing requirements. In July 2012, Virgin Galactic announced LauncherOne, an orbital launch vehicle designed to launch "smallsat" primary Payload (air and space craft), payloads of into low Earth orbit, with launches projected to begin in 2016. Several commercial customers have already contracted for launches, including GeoOptics, Skybox Imaging, Spaceflight Industries, and Planetary Resources. Both Surrey Satellite Technology and Sierra Nevada Corporation, Sierra Nevada Space Systems are developing satellite buses "optimized to the design of LauncherOne". Virgin Galactic has been working on the LauncherOne concept since late 2008,EXCLUSIVE: Virgin Galactic unveils LauncherOne name!
, Rob Coppinger, Flightglobal Hyperbola, 9 December 2008
and , is making it a larger part of Virgin's core business plan as the Virgin human spaceflight program has experienced multiple delays and a fatal accident in 2014. In December 2012, DARPA announced that the Airborne Launch Assist Space Access program would provide the microsatellite rocket booster for the DARPA SeeMe program that intended to release a "Satellite constellation, constellation of 24 micro-satellites (~ range) each with 1-m imaging Satellite imagery, resolution." The program was cancelled in December 2015. In April 2013, Garvey Spacecraft was awarded a contract to evolve their ''Prospector 18'' suborbital launch vehicle technology into an orbital nanosat launch vehicle capable of delivering a payload into a orbit to an even-more-capable Modular rocket, clustered "20/450 Nano/Micro Satellite Launch Vehicle" (NMSLV) capable of delivering payloads into low Earth orbit, circular orbits. The Boeing Small Launch Vehicle is an air launch to orbit, air-launched three-stage-to-orbit
launch vehicle A launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket designed to carry a payload ( spacecraft or satellites) from the Earth's surface to outer space. Most launch vehicles operate from a launch pads, supported by a launch control center and ...
concept aimed to launch small payloads of into low Earth orbit. The program is proposed to drive down launch costs for U.S. military small satellites to as low as per launch ($7,000/kg) and, if the development program was funded, could be operational by 2020. The Swiss company Swiss Space Systems (S3) has announced plans in 2013 to develop a suborbital spaceplane named ''SOAR'' that would launch a microsat launch vehicle capable of putting a payload of up to into low Earth orbit. The Spanish company PLD Space born in 2011 with the objective of developing low cost launch vehicles called PLD Space#Miura 1, Miura 1 and PLD Space#Miura 5, Miura 5 with the capacity to place up to into orbit.


Nanosatellites

The term "nanosatellite" or "nanosat" is applied to an artificial satellite with a mass ratio, wet mass between . Designs and proposed designs of these types may be launched individually, or they may have multiple nanosatellites working together or in formation, in which case, sometimes the term "satellite swarm" or "fractionated spacecraft" may be applied. Some designs require a larger "mother" satellite for communication with ground controllers or for launching and docking with nanosatellites. Over 1600 nanosatellites have been launched as of August 2021. A CubeSat is a common type of nanosatellite, built in cube form based on multiples of 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm, with a mass of no more than per unit. The CubeSat concept was first developed in 1999 by a collaborative team of California Polytechnic State University and Stanford University, and the specifications, for use by anyone planning to launch a CubeSat-style nanosatellite, are maintained by this group. With continued advances in the Moore's law, miniaturization and capability increase of electronic technology and the use of satellite constellations, nanosatellites are increasingly capable of performing commercial missions that previously required microsatellites. For example, a CubeSat, 6U CubeSat standard has been proposed to enable a satellite constellation of thirty five Earth-imaging satellites to replace a constellation of five RapidEye#Satellites, RapidEye Earth-imaging satellites, at the same mission cost, with significantly increased revisit times: every area of the globe can be imaged every 3.5 hours rather than the once per 24 hours with the RapidEye constellation. More rapid revisit times are a significant improvement for nations performing disaster response, which was the purpose of the RapidEye constellation. Additionally, the nanosat option would allow more nations to own their own satellite for off-peak (non-disaster) imaging data collection. As costs lower and production times shorten, nanosatellites are becoming increasingly feasible ventures for companies. Example nanosatellites: ExoCube (CP-10), ArduSat, SPROUT Nanosatellite developers and manufacturers include EnduroSat, GomSpace, NanoAvionics, NanoSpace, Spire Global, Spire, Surrey Satellite Technology, NovaWurks, Dauria Aerospace, Planet Labs and Reaktor (company), Reaktor.


Nanosat market

In the ten years of nanosat launches prior to 2014, only 75 nanosats were launched. Launch rates picked up substantially when in the three-month period from November 2013–January 2014 94 nanosats were launched. One challenge of using nanosats has been the economic delivery of such small satellites to anywhere beyond low Earth orbit. By late 2014, proposals were being developed for larger spacecraft specifically designed to deliver swarms of nanosats to trajectories that are List_of_orbits#Special_classifications, beyond Earth orbit for applications such as exploring distant asteroids.


Nanosatellite launch vehicle

With the emergence of the technological advances of miniaturization and increased Financial capital, capital to support private spaceflight initiatives in the 2010s, several startups have been formed to pursue opportunities with developing a variety of small-payload Nanosatellite Launch Vehicle (NLV) technologies. NLVs proposed or under development include: *
Virgin Orbit Virgin Orbit is a company within the Virgin Group which launch service provider, provides launch services for small satellites. On January 17, 2021, their ''LauncherOne'' rocket successfully reached orbit for the first time, and successfully dep ...
''LauncherOne'' upper stage, intended to be Air launch to orbit, air-launched from Scaled Composites White Knight Two, WhiteKnightTwo similar to how the SpaceShipTwo spaceplane is launched. * Ventions' Nanosat upper stage. * Nammo/Andøya Space Center, Andøya ''North Star (rocket family), North Star'' (polar orbit-capable launcher for a payload) * , Garvey Spacecraft (now Vector Launch) is evolving their ''Prospector 18'' suborbital launch vehicle technology into an orbital nanosat launch vehicle capable of delivering a payload into a orbit. * Generation Orbit is developing an air-launched rocket to deliver both nanosats and microsats to low Earth orbit. Actual NS launches: * NASA launched three satellites on 21 April 2013 based on smart phones. Two phones use the PhoneSat 1.0 specification and the third used a beta version of PhoneSat 2.0 * ISRO launched 14 nanosatellites on 22 June 2016, 2 for Indian universities and 12 for the United States under the Flock-2P program. This launch was performed during the PSLV-C34 mission. * ISRO launched 103 nanosatellites on 15 February 2017. This launch was performed during the PSLV-C37 mission.


Picosatellites

The term "picosatellite" or "picosat" (not to be confused with the PicoSAT series of microsatellites) is usually applied to artificial satellites with a wet mass between , although it is sometimes used to refer to any satellite that is under 1 kg in launch mass. Again, designs and proposed designs of these types usually have multiple picosatellites working together or in formation (sometimes the term "swarm" is applied). Some designs require a larger "mother" satellite for communication with ground controllers or for launching and docking with picosatellites. Picosatellites are emerging as a new alternative for Do it yourself, do-it-yourself kitbuilders. Picosatellites are currently commercially available across the full range of . Launch opportunities are now available for $12,000 to $18,000 for sub-1 kg picosat payloads that are approximately the size of a soda can.


Femtosatellites

The term "femtosatellite" or "femtosat" is usually applied to artificial satellites with a wet mass below . Like picosatellites, some designs require a larger "mother" satellite for communication with ground controllers. Three prototype "chip satellites" were launched to the ISS on on its STS-134, final mission in May 2011. They were attached to the ISS external platform Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE-8) for testing. In April 2014, the nanosatellite KickSat was launched aboard a Falcon 9 rocket with the intention of releasing 104 femtosatellite-sized chipsats, or "Sprites". In the event, they were unable to complete the deployment on time due to a failure of an onboard clock and the deployment mechanism reentered the atmosphere on 14 May 2014, without having deployed any of the femtosats. ThumbSat is another project intending to launch femtosatellites in the late 2010s. ThumbSat announced a launch agreement with CubeCat in 2017 to launch up to 1000 of the very small satellites. In March 2019, the CubeSat KickSat-2 deployed 105 femtosats called "ChipSats" into Earth orbit. Each of the ChipSats weighed 4 grams. The satellites were tested for 3 days, and they then reentered the atmosphere and burned up.


Technical challenges

Small satellites usually require innovative propulsion, attitude control, communication and computation systems. Larger satellites usually use monopropellants or bipropellant combustion systems for propulsion and attitude control; these systems are complex and require a minimal amount of volume to surface area to dissipate heat. These systems may be used on larger small satellites, while other micro/nanosats have to use electric propulsion, compressed gas, vaporizable liquids such as butane or carbon dioxide or other innovative propulsion systems that are simple, cheap and scalable. Small satellites can use conventional radio systems in UHF, VHF, S-band and X-band, although often miniaturized using more up-to-date technology as compared to larger satellites. Tiny satellites such as nanosats and small microsats may lack the power supply or mass for large conventional radio transponders, and various miniaturized or innovative communications systems have been proposed, such as laser receivers, antenna arrays and satellite-to-satellite communication networks. Few of these have been demonstrated in practice. Electronics need to be rigorously tested and modified to be "space hardened" or resistant to the outer space environment (vacuum, microgravity, thermal extremes, and radiation exposure). Miniaturized satellites allow for the opportunity to test new hardware with reduced expense in testing. Furthermore, since the overall cost risk in the mission is much lower, more up-to-date but less space-proven technology can be incorporated into micro and nanosats than can be used in much larger, more expensive missions with less appetite for risk.


Collision safety

Small satellites are difficult to track with ground-based radar, so it is difficult to predict if they will collide with other satellites or human-occupied spacecraft. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission has rejected at least one small satellite launch request on these safety grounds.


See also

* Canadian Advanced Nanospace eXperiment Program * CanSat * DRAGONSat picosatellite * Micro air vehicle * N-Prize * Nanosatellite Launch System * Satellite formation flying * SPHERES * Student Space Exploration & Technology Initiative * University Nanosatellite Program * AMSAT Amateur Satellite Corp. * PocketQube *
Rocket Lab Rocket Lab is a public American aerospace manufacturer and launch service provider, with a New Zealand subsidiary. The company operates lightweight Electron orbital rockets, which provide dedicated launches for small satellites. Rocket Lab also ...


References


External links


Nanosatellite and CubeSat DatabaseNewSpace IndexPico Satellite Development Resources
{{Use American English, date=January 2014 Satellites by type Small satellites,