international relations International relations (IR), sometimes referred to as international studies and international affairs, is the scientific study of interactions between sovereign states. In a broader sense, it concerns all activities between states—such a ...

, a middle power is a

sovereign state A sovereign state or sovereign country, is a political entity represented by one central government that has supreme legitimate authority over territory. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined te ...

that is not a

great power A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power in ...

nor a superpower, but still has large or moderate influence and international recognition. The concept of the "middle power" dates back to the origins of the European state system. In the late 16th century, Italian political thinker

Giovanni Botero Giovanni Botero (c. 1544 – 1617) was an Italian thinker, priest, poet, and diplomat, author of '' Della ragion di Stato (The Reason of State)'',Botero, Giovanni, Pamela Waley, Daniel Philip Waley, and Robert Peterson. 1956. The Reason of St ...

divided the world into three types of states: ''grandissime'' (empires), ''mezano'' (middle powers), and ''piccioli'' ( small powers). According to Botero, a ''mezano'' or middle power "has sufficient strength and authority to stand on its own without the need of help from others."Rudd K (2006
Making Australia a force for good
''Labor eHerald'' Countries

History and definition

No agreed standard method defines which states are middle powers, aside from the broad idea that middle powers are states that have a 'moderate' ability to influence the behaviour of other states, in contrast to small power, which have 'little' ability to influence. Some researchers use

Gross National Product The gross national income (GNI), previously known as gross national product (GNP), is the total domestic and foreign output claimed by residents of a country, consisting of gross domestic product (GDP), plus factor incomes earned by foreign ...

(GNP) statistics to draw lists of middle powers around the world. Economically, middle powers are generally those that are not considered too "big" or too "small", however that is defined. However, economy is not always the defining factor. Under the original sense of the term, a middle power was one that had some degree of influence globally, but did not dominate in any one area. However, this usage is not universal, and some define middle power to include nations that can be regarded as

regional power In international relations, since the late 20thcentury, the term "regional power" has been used for a sovereign state that exercises significant power within a given geographical region.Joachim Betz, Ian Taylor"The Rise of (New) Regional Pow ...

s. According to academics at the

University of Leicester , mottoeng = So that they may have life , established = , type = public research university , endowment = £20.0 million , budget = £326 million , chancellor = David Willetts , vice_chancellor = Nishan Canagarajah , head_lab ...

and

University of Nottingham , mottoeng = A city is built on wisdom , established = 1798 – teacher training college1881 – University College Nottingham1948 – university status , type = Public , chancellor ...

Middle power status is usually identified in one of two ways. The traditional and most common way is to aggregate critical physical and material criteria to rank states according to their relative capabilities. Because countries' capabilities differ, they are categorized as superpowers (or great powers), middle powers or small powers. More recently, it is possible to discern a second method for identifying middle power status by focusing on behavioural attributes. This posits that middle powers can be distinguished from superpowers and smaller powers because of their foreign policy behaviour – middle powers carve out a niche for themselves by pursuing a narrow range and particular types of foreign policy interest. In this way middle powers are countries that use their relative diplomatic skills in the service of international peace and stability.

According to Eduard Jordaan of

Singapore Management University The Singapore Management University (SMU) is a public autonomous university in Singapore. The university is the only city campus in Singapore. It ranks third in Asia as a specialist university, behind Hong Kong University of Science and Techn ...

All middle powers display foreign policy behaviour that stabilises and legitimises the global order, typically through multilateral and cooperative initiatives. However, emerging and traditional middle powers can be distinguished in terms of their mutually-influencing constitutive and behavioural differences. Constitutively, traditional middle powers are wealthy, stable,
egalitarian Egalitarianism (), or equalitarianism, is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds from the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all hu ...
, social democratic and not regionally influential. Behaviourally, they exhibit a weak and ambivalent regional orientation, constructing identities distinct from powerful states in their regions and offer appeasing concessions to pressures for global reform. Emerging middle powers by contrast are semi-peripheral, materially inegalitarian and recently democratised states that demonstrate much regional influence and self-association. Behaviourally, they opt for reformist and not radical global change, exhibit a strong regional orientation favouring regional integration but seek also to construct identities distinct from those of the weak states in their region.

Another definition, by the Middle Powers Initiative (MPI), a program of the

Global Security Institute The Global Security Institute (GSI) is a largely private (though partly bipartisan), non-governmental international organization with a mission to eliminate nuclear weapons through international cooperation and security. It aims to influence nat ...

, is that "middle power countries are politically and economically significant, internationally respected countries that have renounced the nuclear arms race, a standing that give them significant international credibility."Middle Powers Initiative (2004
Building Bridges: What Middle Power Countries Should Do To Strengthen the NPT
, ''GSI'' Under this definition however, nuclear-armed states like India and Pakistan, and every state participant of the

NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...

nuclear sharing Nuclear sharing is a concept in NATO's policy of nuclear deterrence, which allows member countries without nuclear weapons of their own to participate in the planning for the use of nuclear weapons by NATO. In particular, it provides for the ar ...

, would not be middle powers.

Middle power diplomacy

According to Laura Neak of the

International Studies Association The International Studies Association (ISA) is a US-based professional association for scholars and practitioners in the field of international studies. Founded in 1959, ISA has been headquartered at the University of Connecticut in Storrs sin ...

Although there is some conceptual ambiguity surrounding the term middle power, middle powers are identified most often by their international behavior–called 'middle power diplomacy'—the tendency to pursue multilateral solutions to international problems, the tendency to embrace compromise positions in international disputes, and the tendency to embrace notions of 'good international citizenship' to guide...diplomacy. Middle powers are states who commit their relative affluence, managerial skills, and international prestige to the preservation of the international order and peace. Middle powers help to maintain the international order through coalition-building, by serving as mediators and "go-betweens," and through international conflict management and resolution activities, such as UN peacekeeping. Middle powers perform these internationalist activities because of an idealistic imperative they associate with being a middle power. The imperative is that the middle powers have a moral responsibility and collective ability to protect the international order from those who would threaten it, including, at times, the great or principal powers. This imperative was particularly profound during the most intense periods of the Cold War.Bishai LS (2000
From Recognition to Intervention: The Shift from Traditional to Liberal International Law

According to international relations scholar Annette Baker Fox, relationships between middle powers and great powers reveal more intricate behaviors and bargaining schemes than has often been assumed. According to Soeya Yoshihide, "Middle Power does not just mean a state's size or military or economic power. Rather, 'middle power diplomacy' is defined by the issue area where a state invests its resources and knowledge. Middle Power States avoid a direct confrontation with great powers, but they see themselves as 'moral actors' and seek their own role in particular issue areas, such as human rights, environment, and arms regulations. Middle powers are the driving force in the process of transnational institutional-building." Characteristics of middle power diplomacy include: *Commitment to

multilateralism In international relations, multilateralism refers to an alliance of multiple countries pursuing a common goal. Definitions Multilateralism, in the form of membership in international institutions, serves to bind powerful nations, discourage ...

through global institutions and allying with other middle powers. *High degree of

civil society Civil society can be understood as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government and business, and including the family and the private sphere.Peacekeeping, Human Security, the

International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court (ICC or ICCt) is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals f ...

, and the Kyoto Protocol The Middle Powers Initiative highlights the importance of middle powers diplomacy. Through MPI, eight international non-governmental organizations are able to work primarily with middle power governments to encourage and educate the nuclear weapons states to take immediate practical steps that reduce nuclear dangers, and commence negotiations to eliminate nuclear weapons. Middle power countries are particularly influential in issues related to arms control, being that they are politically and economically significant, internationally respected countries that have renounced the

nuclear arms race The nuclear arms race was an arms race competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War. During this same period, in addition to the American and Soviet nuc ...

, a standing that gives them significant political credibility.

Self-defined by nation states

The term first entered Canadian political discourse after

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...

Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister i ...

Louis St. Laurent, for example, called

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

"a power of the middle rank" and helped to lay out the classical definition of Canadian middle power diplomacy. When he was advocating for Canada's election to the

United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...

, he said that while "...the special nature of anada'srelationship to the United Kingdom and the United States complicates our responsibilities," Canada was not a "

satellite A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioi ...

" of either but would "continue to make our decisions objectively, in the light of our obligations to our own people and their interest in the welfare of the international community." Canadian leaders believed Canada was a middle power because it was a junior partner in larger alliances (e.g.

, NORAD), was actively involved in resolving disputes outside its own region (e.g. Suez Crisis), was not a former colonial power and therefore neutral in anti-colonial struggles, worked actively in the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...

to represent the interests of smaller nations and to prevent the dominance of the superpowers (often being elected to the

for such reasons), and because it was involved in humanitarian and peacekeeping efforts around the world. In March 2008, Australian

Kevin Rudd Kevin Michael Rudd (born 21 September 1957) is an Australian former politician and diplomat who served as the 26th prime minister of Australia from 2007 to 2010 and again from June 2013 to September 2013, holding office as the leader of the ...

defined his country's foreign policy as one of "middle power diplomacy", along the lines of similar criteria. Australia would "influence international decision-makers" on issues such as "global economic, security and environmental challenges".Shanahan D (2008
Time to go global, urges Rudd
, ''The Australian''

Overlaps between great powers and middle powers

The overlaps between the lists of middle powers and great powers show that there is no unanimous agreement among authorities. Nations such as China,

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...

, the

United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...

and the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...

are generally considered to be

s due to their economic, military or strategic importance, their status as recognised

nuclear powers Eight sovereign states have publicly announced successful detonation of nuclear weapons. Five are considered to be nuclear-weapon states (NWS) under the terms of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). In order of acquisit ...

and their permanent seats on the

. Some academics also believe that

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...

and Japan are great powers, but due to their large advanced economies and global influence as opposed to military and strategic capabilities, yet sources have at times referred to these nations as middle powers.P. Shearman, M. Sussex,
European Security After 9/11
'(Ashgate, 2004) - According to Shearman and Sussex, both the UK and France were great powers now reduced to middle power status. People in the field of international relations, such as Professor Kirton and Roberto Gimeno, support the claim that

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

is a great power due to its status and membership in the G7 and NATO Quint. Moreover, according to a 2014 report by the Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS), Italy is listed among the great powers. Although broad academic support for India as a great power is uncommon, some in the field of political science, such as Malik Mohan and Dr.

Zbigniew Brzezinski Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński ( , ; March 28, 1928 – May 26, 2017), or Zbig, was a Polish-American diplomat and political scientist. He served as a counselor to President Lyndon B. Johnson from 1966 to 1968 and was President Jimmy Carter' ...

, consider

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

to be a great power too.
Strategic Vision: America & the Crisis of Global Power
' by Dr.

, pp 43–45. Published 2012. In addition to it,

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

is sometimes referred as a great power due to its economic power and influence.Heine J (2006
On the Manner of Practising the New Diplomacy
''ISN'' Brazil, India and Italy are also described at times as middle powers. The following is a list of 8 countries that have been, at some point in time since the

post–Cold War era The –Cold War era is a period of history that follows the end of the Cold War, which represents history after the 1991 fall of the Soviet Union. This period saw the United States became the world's sole superpower in the world and paved the way ...

, often considered great powers, but sometimes also listed as middle powers by academics or other experts. The

and China, considered by many scholars to exceed the traditional criterion of

or instead to be a superpower, are not listed: * * * Otte M, Greve J (2000
A Rising Middle Power?: German Foreign Policy in Transformation, 1989-1999
''St. Martin's Press'' * * * * *

List of middle powers

As with the great powers, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to which countries are considered middle powers. Lists are often the subject of much debate and tend to place comparatively large countries (e.g.

Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...

) alongside relatively small ones (e.g.

Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the ...

).Solomon S (1997
South African Foreign Policy and Middle Power Leadership
, ''ISS'' Clearly not all middle powers are of equal status; some are considered

s and members of the

G20 The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stability, climate change mitigatio ...

(e.g. Australia), while others could very easily be considered small powers (e.g.

Czech Republic The Czech Republic, or simply Czechia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Historically known as Bohemia, it is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the southeast. The ...

). Some larger middle powers also play important roles in the

and other international organisations such as the WTO. The following is a list of 52 countries that have been, at some point in time since the

, considered middle powers by academics or other experts (Members of the

G-20 major economies The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stability, climate change mitigation ...

are in bold font, except for the EU member states which are attended under a collective membership of the EU): *Africa (7 countries) ** Wurst J (2006
Middle Powers Initiative Briefing Paper
''GSI'' Cooper AF (1997
Niche Diplomacy - Middle Powers after the Cold War
, ''palgrave''Bernard Wood, 'Towards North-South Middle Power Coalitions', in ''Middle Power Internationalism: The North-South Dimension'', edited by Cranford Pratt (Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990). ** ** Andrew F. Cooper, Agata Antkiewicz and Timothy M. Shaw, 'Lessons from/for BRICSAM about South-North Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else?', ''International Studies Review'', Vol. 9, No. 4 (Winter, 2007), pp. 675, 687.Ploughshares Monitor (1997

** ** ** ** *Americas (6 countries) ** **Behringer RM (2005
Middle Power Leadership on the Human Security Agenda
, ''SAGE''Crosby AD (1997
A Middle-Power Military in Alliance: Canada and NORAD
''JSTOR''Petersen K (2003

''Dissident Voice'' ** Heine J (2006
On the Manner of Practising the New Diplomacy
''ISN'' ** ** Louis Belanger and Gordon Mace, 'Middle Powers and Regionalism in the Americas: The Cases of Argentina and Mexico', in ''Niche Diplomacy: Middle Powers After the Cold War'', edited by Andrew F. Cooper (London: Macmillan, 1997).Pierre G. Goad, 'Middle Powers to the Rescue?', ''Far Eastern Economic Review'', Vol. 163, No. 24 (2000), p. 69.Pellicer O (2006)
Mexico – a Reluctant Middle Power?
, ''FES'' ** *Asia (20 countries) ** ** ** Jonathan H. Ping, ''Middle Power Statecraft: Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Asia Pacific'' (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2005). ** Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Raymond Hinnesbusch, ''Syria and Iran: Middle Power in a Penetrated Regional System'' (London: Routledge, 1997).Ahouie M (2004

, ''MIT''Foreign Affairs Committee (2006

/ref> ** ** ** ** ** Mace G, Belanger L (1999
The Americas in Transition: The Contours of Regionalism
(p 153) ** ** Jonathan H. Pin
Middle Power Statecraft
(p 104) ** ** ** ** ** ** ** Andrew F. Cooper, Agata Antkiewicz and Timothy M. Shaw, 'Lessons from/for BRICSAM about South-North Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else?', ''International Studies Review'', Vol. 9, No. 4 (Winter, 2007), pp. 675, 687. ** ** *Europe (17 countries) ** ** Inoguchi K (2002

Caplan G (2006
From Rwanda to Darfur: Lessons learned?
''SudanTribune'' ** ** Pratt C (1990
Middle Power Internationalism
''MQUP'' ** ** Thanos Veremēs (1997

"Black Rose Books" ** Higgott RA, Cooper AF (1990
Middle Power Leadership and Coalition Building
/ref> ** ** ** ** Kirton J (2006
Harper's Foreign Policy Success?
/ref> ** according to Yves Lacoste, ''Géopolitique'', Larousse, 2009,p. 134, both Spain and Portugal exert a real influence in Africa and in the Americas. ** ** ** Rudengren J, Gisle P, Brann K (1995
Middle Power Clout: Sweden And The Development Banks
** ** *Oceania (2 countries) ** Tobias Harris, 'Japan Accepts its "Middle-Power" Fate'. ''Far Eastern Economic Review'' Vol. 171, No. 6 (2008), p. 45: 'Japan is settling into a position as a middle power in Asia, sitting uneasily between the U.S., its security ally, and China, its most important economic partner. In this it finds itself in a situation similar to Australia, India, South Korea and the members of Asean.'Yasmi Adriansyah, 'Questioning Indonesia's place in the world', ''Asia Times'' (20 September 2011): 'Countries often categorized as middle power (MP) include Australia, Canada and Japan. The reasons for this categorization are the nations' advanced political-economic stature as well as their significant contribution to international cooperation and development. India and Brazil have recently become considered middle powers because of their rise in the global arena—particularly with the emerging notion of BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China).'Hazleton WA (2005

, ''allacademic'' **

References

External links

Middle Powers Initiative
{{DEFAULTSORT:Middle Power Military terminology Hegemony International relations theory States by power status Political science terminology 16th-century neologisms Political terminology