Michael Glykas or Glycas ( gr, Μιχαὴλ Γλυκᾶς) was a 12th-century

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...

historian A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the st ...

theologian Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...

mathematician A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change. History On ...

astronomer An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies – in either ...

and

poet A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral or w ...

. He was probably from

Corfu Corfu (, ) or Kerkyra ( el, Κέρκυρα, Kérkyra, , ; ; la, Corcyra.) is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea, of the Ionian Islands, and, including its small satellite islands, forms the margin of the northwestern frontier of Greece. The isl ...

and lived in

Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...

. He was a critic of

Manuel I Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos ( el, Μανουήλ Κομνηνός, translit=Manouíl Komnenos, translit-std=ISO; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized Comnenus, also called Porphyrogennetos (; " born in the purple"), was a Byzantine empero ...

, and was imprisoned and blinded due to his participation in a conspiracy against the emperor. He is also identified by modern scholarship with Michael Sikidites (Μιχαὴλ Σικιδίτης), who was condemned as a

heresiarch In Christian theology, a heresiarch (also hæresiarch, according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary''; from Greek: , ''hairesiárkhēs'' via the late Latin ''haeresiarcha''Cross and Livingstone, ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' 1974) ...

in 1200.

Life

Glykas was born sometime in the first third of the 12th century, possibly . His probable birthplace was

. He served as imperial secretary (''grammatikos'') under Emperor

(), before being involved in a conspiracy against the emperor and being blinded. The blinding was probably partial or slight, since he continued his literary activity. The exact nature of this conspiracy is unknown, but Otto Kresten suggested a connection with the alleged conspiracy that led to the downfall of Manuel's chief minister

Theodore Styppeiotes Theodore Styppeiotes or Stypeiotes ( gr, Θεόδωρος Στυπ ��ιώτης, Theodōros Styp iōtēs) was a high-ranking bureaucrat of the Byzantine Empire and a member of the court of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (). A well-educated and capable ma ...

in 1158/9. He remained imprisoned until at least 1164, and his subsequent fate is unknown. Modern scholars commonly support his identity with a certain Michael Sikidites, charged with heresy and magic in . According to

Niketas Choniates Niketas or Nicetas Choniates ( el, Νικήτας Χωνιάτης; c. 1155 – 1217), whose actual surname was Akominatos (Ἀκομινάτος), was a Byzantine Greek government official and historian – like his brother Michael Akominatos, w ...

, this Sikidites "was enrolled among the imperial secretaries" of Manuel I, was known of performing magic spells, conjuring serpents and demons. He preached a doctrine according to which the

sacraments A sacrament is a Christian rite that is recognized as being particularly important and significant. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites. Many Christians consider the sacraments to be a visible symbol of the rea ...

of the

Eucharist The Eucharist (; from Greek , , ), also known as Holy Communion and the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. According to the New Testament, the rite was institu ...

were mortal and corruptible, as Christ's own body was. Furthermore, Sikidites and his followers considered a bodily resurrection impossible, and thought that the dead would be resurrected as ghostly spirits only. The doctrine appears to have enjoyed some support in leading circles, notably of the Patriarchs of Constantinople George II Xiphilinos and John X Kamateros, but also aroused passionate opposition; in a

synod A synod () is a council of a Christian denomination, usually convened to decide an issue of doctrine, administration or application. The word '' synod'' comes from the meaning "assembly" or "meeting" and is analogous with the Latin word mean ...

in 1200, Sikidites was censured and his teachings declared heretical.

Works

His first known work were his ''Verses from Prison'', a poem of 581 lines in

political verse Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...

, written during his imprisonment. It contains many elements of the vernacular Greek language of his time (an early form of

Modern Greek Modern Greek (, , or , ''Kiní Neoellinikí Glóssa''), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the dialects of the Greek language spoken in the modern era, including the official standardized form of the ...

), in contrast to the highly stylized and archaic

Attic Greek Attic Greek is the Greek dialect of the ancient region of Attica, including the '' polis'' of Athens. Often called classical Greek, it was the prestige dialect of the Greek world for centuries and remains the standard form of the language that ...

favoured by Byzantine intellectuals. In 1164/65, he composed an ''

encomium ''Encomium'' is a Latin word deriving from the Ancient Greek ''enkomion'' (), meaning "the praise of a person or thing." Another Latin equivalent is ''laudatio'', a speech in praise of someone or something. Originally was the song sung by the ...

'' celebrating Emperor Manuel's Hungarian campaign. He also wrote a mathematical treatise on the distinction between

astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...

and

astrology Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Di ...

, where he severely criticised Manuel I for his fondness for the latter; in the same vein, Glykas strongly rejected the concept of inevitable fate (''ananke'') as a force in history. His chief work is his

chronicle A chronicle ( la, chronica, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and ...

(βίβλος χρονική, ''biblos chronike'') of events from the creation of the world to the death of

Alexios I Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos ( grc-gre, Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός, 1057 – 15 August 1118; Latinized Alexius I Comnenus) was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the first emperor of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during ...

in 1118. His main sources for the chronicle were George Monachos,

John Skylitzes John Skylitzes, commonly Latinized as Ioannes, la, Johannes, label=none, la, Iōannēs, label=none Scylitzes ( el, Ἰωάννης Σκυλίτζης, ''Iōánnēs Skylítzēs'', or el, Σκυλίτση, ''Skylítsē'', label=none ; la, ...

and his continuators, John Zonaras, and

Constantine Manasses Constantine Manasses ( el, Κωνσταντῖνος Μανασσῆς; c. 1130 - c. 1187) was a Byzantine chronicler who flourished in the 12th century during the reign of Manuel I Komnenos (1143-1180). He was the author of a chronicle or historic ...

. Over half the work is dedicated to the narrative of the creation and early Jewish history. As a historical source, it contains no new information, but Glykas displays his opposition to the

Komnenian dynasty Komnenos ( gr, Κομνηνός; Latinized Comnenus; plural Komnenoi or Comneni (Κομνηνοί, )) was a Byzantine Greek noble family who ruled the Byzantine Empire from 1081 to 1185, and later, as the Grand Komnenoi (Μεγαλοκομνην� ...

, and emulates Zonaras in his criticism of Alexios I. Another notable work, which led Hans-Georg Beck to describe Glykas as the "most original and vivid

exegete Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretations ...

of the 12th century", was the collection of 95 replies on theological questions (Εἰς τὰς ἀπορίας τῆς Θείας Γραφῆς κεφάλαια, ''Chapters on the questions on the Holy Scripture''), written in letter form. Among them is a letter where he criticises Manuel I for his incorrect use of passages from the

Church Fathers The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical per ...

. His surviving work, including his letters, is "overtly didactic", promoting Christian virtues, and making extensive use of

proverbs A proverb (from la, proverbium) is a simple and insightful, traditional saying that expresses a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. Proverbs are often metaphorical and use formulaic language. A proverbial phrase or a proverbia ...

to this end.

Editions

* J.-P. Migne, ''Michael Glyca opera omnia'', Paris, 1866 * Michael Glycas, ''Annales'', I. Bekker (ed.), Bonn, 1836 * Michael Glykas, ''Εἰς τὰς ἀπορίας τῆς Θείας Γραφῆς κεφάλαια'', S. Eustratiadis (ed.), vol. I, Athens, 1906 ; vol. II, Alexandria, 1912. * Giovanni Mercati (ed.), ''Opere minori'', Biblioteca apostolica vaticana, Vatican, 1937 (vol. I, p. 426). * Émile Legrand (translator), ''Bibliothèque grecque vulgaire'', Paris, 1881 (vol. I, French translation of his ''Verses from Prison''). * Raffaele Cantarella (translator), ''Poeti bizantini'', Rizzoli, Milan, 2000 (vol. II, p. 228).

References

External links

Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
{{DEFAULTSORT:Glykas, Michael 12th-century Byzantine historians 12th-century Byzantine writers 12th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians Blind academics Byzantine poets Byzantine theologians Modern Greek language Writers from Corfu Officials of Manuel I Komnenos Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Byzantine prisoners and detainees Prisoners and detainees of the Byzantine Empire Biblical exegesis