''Meditations'' () is a series of personal writings by

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: áːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠ English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good E ...

, Roman Emperor from AD 161 to 180, recording his private notes to himself and ideas on

Stoic philosophy Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting that t ...

. Marcus Aurelius wrote the 12 books of the ''Meditations'' in

Koine Greek Koine Greek (; Koine el, ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, hē koinè diálektos, the common dialect; ), also known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek or New Testament Greek, was the common supra-reg ...

as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. It is possible that large portions of the work were written at

Sirmium Sirmium was a city in the Roman province of Pannonia, located on the Sava river, on the site of modern Sremska Mitrovica in the Vojvodina autonomous provice of Serbia. First mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by Illyria ...

, where he spent much time planning military campaigns from 170 to 180. Some of it was written while he was positioned at

Aquincum Aquincum (, ) was an ancient city, situated on the northeastern borders of the province of Pannonia within the Roman Empire. The ruins of the city can be found today in Budapest, the capital city of Hungary. It is believed that Marcus Aurelius w ...

on campaign in

Pannonia Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now west ...

, because internal notes tell us that the first book was written when he was campaigning against the

Quadi The Quadi were a Germanic * * * people who lived approximately in the area of modern Moravia in the time of the Roman Empire. The only surviving contemporary reports about the Germanic tribe are those of the Romans, whose empire had its bord ...

on the river Granova (modern-day

Hron The Hron ( sk, Hron; german: Gran; hu, Garam; la, Granus) is a long left tributary of the Danube Carnuntum Carnuntum ( according to Ptolemy) was a Roman legionary fortress ( la, castra legionis) and headquarters of the Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century, it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province. It also became a large ...

. It is unlikely that Marcus Aurelius ever intended the writings to be published. The work has no official title, so "Meditations" is one of several titles commonly assigned to the collection. These writings take the form of quotations varying in length from one sentence to long paragraphs.

Structure and themes

The ''Meditations'' is divided into 12 books that chronicle different periods of Aurelius' life. Each book is not in chronological order and it was written for no one but himself. The style of writing that permeates the text is one that is simplified, straightforward, and perhaps reflecting Aurelius'

Stoic Stoic may refer to: * An adherent of Stoicism; one whose moral quality is associated with that school of philosophy * STOIC, a programming language * ''Stoic'' (film), a 2009 film by Uwe Boll * ''Stoic'' (mixtape), a 2012 mixtape by rapper T-Pain * ...

perspective. A central theme to ''Meditations'' is the importance of analyzing one's judgment of self and others and developing a cosmic perspective:

You have the power to strip away many superfluous troubles located wholly in your judgment, and to possess a large room for yourself embracing in thought the whole cosmos, to consider everlasting time, to think of the rapid change in the parts of each thing, of how short it is from birth until dissolution, and how the void before birth and that after dissolution are equally infinite.

Aurelius advocates finding one's place in the universe and sees that everything came from nature, and so everything shall return to it in due time. Another strong theme is of maintaining focus and to be without distraction all the while maintaining strong ethical principles such as "Being a good man." His Stoic ideas often involve avoiding indulgence in sensory

affection Affection or fondness is a "disposition or state of mind or body" that is often associated with a feeling or type of love. It has given rise to a number of branches of philosophy and psychology concerning emotion, disease, influence, and sta ...

s, a skill which will free a man from the pains and pleasures of the material world. He claims that the only way a man can be harmed by others is to allow his reaction to overpower him. An order or ''

logos ''Logos'' (, ; grc, λόγος, lógos, lit=word, discourse, or reason) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. Aris ...

'' permeates existence.

Rationality Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an ab ...

and clear-mindedness allow one to live in harmony with the ''logos''. This allows one to rise above faulty perceptions of "good" and "bad"—things out of your control like fame and health are (unlike things in your control) irrelevant and neither good nor bad.

History of text

There is no certain mention of the ''Meditations'' until the early 10th century. The historian

Herodian Herodian or Herodianus ( el, Ἡρωδιανός) of Syria, sometimes referred to as "Herodian of Antioch" (c. 170 – c. 240), was a minor Roman civil servant who wrote a colourful history in Greek titled ''History of the Empire from the Death o ...

, writing in the mid-3rd century, makes mention of Marcus' literary legacy, saying "He was concerned with all aspects of excellence, and in his love of ancient literature he was second to no man, Roman or Greek; this is evident from all his sayings and writings which have come down to us", a passage which may refer to the ''Meditations''. The ''

Historia Augusta The ''Historia Augusta'' (English: ''Augustan History'') is a late Roman collection of biographies, written in Latin, of the Roman emperors, their junior colleagues, designated heirs and usurpers from 117 to 284. Supposedly modeled on the si ...

s biography of

Avidius Cassius Gaius Avidius Cassius ( 130 – July 175 AD) was a Syrian Roman general and usurper. He was born in Cyrrhus, and was the son of Gaius Avidius Heliodorus, who served as '' praefectus'' or governor of Roman Egypt, and Julia Cassia Alexandra, wh ...

, thought to have been written in the 4th century, records that before Marcus set out on the

Marcomannic Wars The Marcomannic Wars (Latin: ''bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum'', "German and Sarmatian War") were a series of wars lasting from about 166 until 180 AD. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against, principally, the Germanic Marcomanni and Quad ...

, he was asked to publish his ''Precepts of Philosophy'' in case something should befall him, but he instead "for three days discussed the books of his ''Exhortations'' one after the other". A doubtful mention is made by the orator

Themistius Themistius ( grc-gre, Θεμίστιος ; 317 – c. 388 AD), nicknamed Euphrades, (eloquent), was a statesman, rhetorician, and philosopher. He flourished in the reigns of Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius I; ...

in about AD 364. In an address to the emperor

Valens Valens ( grc-gre, Ουάλης, Ouálēs; 328 – 9 August 378) was Roman emperor from 364 to 378. Following a largely unremarkable military career, he was named co-emperor by his elder brother Valentinian I, who gave him the eastern half of ...

, ''On Brotherly Love'', he says: "You do not need the exhortations ( el, παραγγέλματα) of Marcus." Another possible reference is in the collection of Greek poems known as the ''

Palatine Anthology The ''Palatine Anthology'' (or ''Anthologia Palatina''), sometimes abbreviated ''AP'', is the collection of Greek poems and epigrams discovered in 1606 in the Palatine Library in Heidelberg. It is based on the lost collection of Constantinus Cep ...

'', a work dating to the 10th century but containing much earlier material. The anthology contains an epigram dedicated to "the Book of Marcus". It has been proposed that this epigram was written by the

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...

scholar

Theophylact Simocatta Theophylact Simocatta (Byzantine Greek: Θεοφύλακτος Σιμοκάτ(τ)ης ''Theophýlaktos Simokát(t)ēs''; la, Theophylactus Simocatta) was an early seventh-century Byzantine historiographer, arguably ranking as the last historian o ...

in the 7th century. The first direct mention of the work comes from

Arethas of Caesarea Arethas of Caesarea ( el, Ἀρέθας; born c. 860 AD) was Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (modern Kayseri, Turkey) early in the 10th century, and is considered one of the most scholarly theologians of the Greek Orthodox Church. ...

(c. 860–935), a bishop who was a great collector of manuscripts. At some date before 907 he sent a volume of the ''Meditations'' to Demetrius, Archbishop of Heracleia, with a letter saying: "I have had for some time an old copy of the Emperor Marcus' most profitable book, so old indeed that it is altogether falling to pieces.… This I have had copied and am able to hand down to posterity in its new dress." Arethas also mentions the work in marginal notes (''

scholia Scholia (singular scholium or scholion, from grc, σχόλιον, "comment, interpretation") are grammatical, critical, or explanatory comments – original or copied from prior commentaries – which are inserted in the margin of t ...

'') to books by

Lucian Lucian of Samosata, '; la, Lucianus Samosatensis ( 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridiculed supersti ...

and

Dio Chrysostom Dio Chrysostom (; el, Δίων Χρυσόστομος ''Dion Chrysostomos''), Dion of Prusa or Cocceianus Dio (c. 40 – c. 115 AD), was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD. Eighty of hi ...

where he refers to passages in the "Treatise to Himself" ( el, τὰ εἰς ἑαυτὸν ἠθικά), and it was this title which the book bore in the manuscript from which the first printed edition was made in the 16th century. Arethas' own copy has now vanished, but it is thought to be the likely ancestor of the surviving manuscripts. The next mention of the ''Meditations'' is in the ''

Suda The ''Suda'' or ''Souda'' (; grc-x-medieval, Σοῦδα, Soûda; la, Suidae Lexicon) is a large 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Soudas (Σούδας) or Souida ...

'' lexicon published in the late 10th century. The ''Suda'' calls the work "a directing ( el, ἀγωγή) of his own life by Marcus the Emperor in twelve books," which is the first mention of a division of the work into twelve books. The ''Suda'' makes use of some thirty quotations taken from books I, III, IV, V, IX, and XI. Around 1150,

John Tzetzes John Tzetzes ( grc-gre, Ἰωάννης Τζέτζης, Iōánnēs Tzétzēs; c. 1110, Constantinople – 1180, Constantinople) was a Byzantine poet and grammarian who is known to have lived at Constantinople in the 12th century. He was able to pr ...

, a grammarian of Constantinople, quotes passages from Books IV and V attributing them to Marcus. About 200 years later Nicephorus Callistus (c. 1295–1360) in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' writes that "Marcus Antoninus composed a book for the education of his son Marcus .e._Commodus.html" ;"title="Commodus.html" ;"title=".e. Commodus">.e. Commodus">Commodus.html" ;"title=".e. Commodus">.e. Commodus full of all worldly ( el, κοσμικῆς) experience and instruction." The ''Meditations'' is thereafter quoted in many Greek compilations from the 14th to 16th centuries. Wilhelm Xylander first translated the Meditations into Latin in 1558.

Manuscripts

The present-day text is based almost entirely upon two manuscripts. One is the ''Codex Palatinus'' (P), also known as the ''Codex Toxitanus'' (T), first published in 1558/9 but now lost. The other manuscript is the ''Codex Vaticanus 1950'' (A) in the

Vatican Library The Vatican Apostolic Library ( la, Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, it, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana), more commonly known as the Vatican Library or informally as the Vat, is the library of the Holy See, located in Vatican City. Formally es ...

Codex Palatinus

The modern history of the ''Meditations'' dates from the issue of the first printed edition (''

editio princeps In classical scholarship, the ''editio princeps'' (plural: ''editiones principes'') of a work is the first printed edition of the work, that previously had existed only in manuscripts, which could be circulated only after being copied by hand. For ...

'') by Wilhelm Xylander in 1558 or 1559. It was published at the instigation of

Conrad Gesner Conrad Gessner (; la, Conradus Gesnerus 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) was a Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist. Born into a poor family in Zürich, Switzerland, his father and teachers quickly realised his tale ...

and printed by his cousin Andreas Gesner at Zurich. The book was bound with a work by Marinus (''Proclus vel De Felicitate'', also a first edition). To the ''Meditations'' was added a Latin translation by Xylander who also included brief notes. Conrad Gesner stated in his dedicatory letter that he "received the books of Marcus from the gifted poet

Michael Toxites Michael Toxites, born Johann Michael Schütz (19 July 1514, Sterzing, South TyrolSterzing has been a part of Italy since the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and is now known as Vipiteno. – 1581, Haguenau, Alsace) was a doctor, alchemist ...

from the library of Otto Heinrich, Prince Palatine", i.e. from the collection at

Heidelberg University } Heidelberg University, officially the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg, (german: Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg; la, Universitas Ruperto Carola Heidelbergensis) is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, ...

. The importance of this edition of the ''Meditations'' is that the manuscript from which it was printed is now lost, so that it is one of the two principal sources of all modern texts.

Codex Vaticanus 1950

The ''Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1950'' is contained in a codex which passed to the

from the collection of Stefano Gradi in 1683. This is a 14th-century manuscript which survives in a very corrupt state, and about forty-two lines have dropped out by accidental omissions.

Other manuscripts

Other manuscripts are of little independent value for reconstructing the text. The main ones are the ''Codex Darmstadtinus 2773'' (D) with 112 extracts from books I–IX, and the ''Codex Parisinus 319'' (C) with 29 extracts from Books I–IV.

Reception

Marcus Aurelius has been lauded for his capacity "to write down what was in his heart just as it was, not obscured by any consciousness of the presence of listeners or any striving after effect."

Gilbert Murray George Gilbert Aimé Murray (2 January 1866 – 20 May 1957) was an Australian-born British classical scholar and public intellectual, with connections in many spheres. He was an outstanding scholar of the language and culture of Ancient Greece ...

compares the work to Jean-Jacques Rousseau's '' Confessions'' and St. Augustine's '' Confessions''. Though Murray criticizes Marcus for the "harshness and plainness of his literary style", he finds in his ''Meditations'' "as much intensity of feeling...as in most of the nobler modern books of religion, only itha sterner power controlling it." "People fail to understand Marcus," he writes, "not because of his lack of self-expression, but because it is hard for most men to breathe at that intense height of spiritual life, or, at least, to breathe soberly." Rees (1992) calls the ''Meditations'' "unendingly moving and inspiring," but does not offer them up as works of original philosophy.Rees, D. A. 1992. "Introduction." In ''Meditations'', edited by A. S. L. Farquhrson (1944). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. . p. xvii.

Bertrand Russell Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British mathematician, philosopher, logician, and public intellectual. He had a considerable influence on mathematics, logic, set theory, linguistics, a ...

found them contradictory and inconsistent, evidence of a "tired age" where "even real goods lose their savour." Using Marcus as an example of greater

philosophy, he found the Stoic ethical philosophy to contain an element of "

sour grapes Sour Grapes may refer to: * Sour grapes, an expression from " The Fox and the Grapes", one of Aesop's Fables * ''Sour Grapes'' (1998 film), a film by Larry David * ''Sour Grapes'' (2016 film), a film about Rudy Kurniawan * ''Sour Grapes'' (poetry ...

." "We can't be happy, but we can be good; let us therefore pretend that, so long as we are good, it doesn't matter being unhappy." Both Russell and Rees find an element of Marcus' Stoic philosophy in the philosophical system of

Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (, , ; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and ...

. In the Introduction to his 1964 translation of ''Meditations'', the Anglican priest

Maxwell Staniforth John Hamilton Maxwell Staniforth CBE (23 June 1893 – 26 December 1985), known to his family as Max, was a British soldier, railwayman, radio presenter, clergyman and scholar. Early life and education Staniforth born in Hinderwell, Yorkshire, ...

discussed the profound impact of

Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting tha ...

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...

. Michael Grant called Marcus Aurelius "the noblest of all the men who, by sheer intelligence and force of character, have prized and achieved goodness for its own sake and not for any reward." Gregory Hays' translation of ''Meditations'' for

The Modern Library The Modern Library is an American book publishing imprint and formerly the parent company of Random House. Founded in 1917 by Albert Boni and Horace Liveright as an imprint of their publishing company Boni & Liveright, Modern Library became an ...

made ''

The Washington Post ''The Washington Post'' (also known as the ''Post'' and, informally, ''WaPo'') is an American daily newspaper published in Washington, D.C. It is the most widely circulated newspaper within the Washington metropolitan area and has a large n ...

''s bestseller list for two weeks in 2002. The book has been described as a prototype of

reflective practice Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on one's actions so as to take a critical stance or attitude towards one's own practice and that of one's peers, engaging in a process of continuous adaptation and learning. According to one defini ...

by Seamus Mac Suibhne.

Beatrice Webb Martha Beatrice Webb, Baroness Passfield, (née Potter; 22 January 1858 – 30 April 1943) was an English sociologist, economist, socialist, labour historian and social reformer. It was Webb who coined the term ''collective bargaining''. She ...

, the labor movement leader who coined the term

collective bargaining Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers. The ...

referred to Meditations as her “manual of devotion.” United States President

Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again ...

said that ''Meditations'' is his favorite book, and former United States Secretary of Defense James Mattis carried his own personal copy of ''The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius'' throughout his deployments as a Marine Corps officer in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan and Iraq.

Wen Jiabao Wen Jiabao (born 15 September 1942) is a retired Chinese politician who served as the Premier of the State Council from 2003 to 2013. In his capacity as head of government, Wen was regarded as the leading figure behind China's economic polic ...

, the former Prime Minister of China, has said that he has read the Meditations over a hundred times. He also stated that he was "very deeply impressed" by the work.

Select quotations

Editions

The ''

'' (first print edition) of the original Greek was published by

Conrad Gessner Conrad Gessner (; la, Conradus Gesnerus 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) was a Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist. Born into a poor family in Zürich, Switzerland, his father and teachers quickly realised his tale ...

and his cousin Andreas in 1559. Both it and the accompanying Latin translation were produced by Wilhelm Xylander. His source was a manuscript from

, provided by

. By 1568, when Xylander completed his second edition, he no longer had access to the source and it has been lost ever since.Marcus Aurelius, ''De seipso, seu vita sua, libri 12''
ed. and trans. by Xylander. Zurich: Andreas Gessner, 1558. The first English translation was published in 1634 by

Meric Casaubon Meric or Méric or Meriç may refer to: Méric * Méric Casaubon (1599–1671), French-English classical scholar Meriç Places and geography * Meriç (river), Turkish name for the Maritsa which runs through the Balkans * Meriç, the Turkish name ...

. Some popular English translations include: * Francis Hutcheson, and James Moore (1742). ''The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2008. *

Richard Graves Richard Graves (4 May 1715 – 23 November 1804) was an English cleric, poet, and novelist. He is remembered especially for his picaresque novel ''The Spiritual Quixote'' (1773). Early life Graves was born at Mickleton Manor, Mickleton, Glouce ...

(1792). ''Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, a new translation from the Greek original, with a Life, Notes, &c., by R. Graves'', 1792; new edition, Halifax, 1826. * George Long (1862) ''The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius''; reprinted many times, including in Vol. 2 of the

Harvard Classics ''The Harvard Classics'', originally marketed as Dr. Eliot's Five-Foot Shelf of Books, is a 50-volume series of classic works of world literature, important speeches, and historical documents compiled and edited by Harvard University President Ch ...

. * C. R. Haines (1916) ''Marcus Aurelius''.

Loeb Classical Library The Loeb Classical Library (LCL; named after James Loeb; , ) is a series of books originally published by Heinemann in London, but is currently published by Harvard University Press. The library contains important works of ancient Greek and ...

. * A. S. L. Farquharson (1944) ''Marcus Aurelius Meditations''.

Everyman's Library Everyman's Library is a series of reprints of classic literature, primarily from the Western canon. It is currently published in hardback by Random House. It was originally an imprint of J. M. Dent (itself later a division of Weidenfeld & N ...

reprint edition (1992) .

Oxford World's Classics Oxford World's Classics is an imprint of Oxford University Press. First established in 1901 by Grant Richards and purchased by OUP in 1906, this imprint publishes primarily dramatic and classic literature for students and the general public. ...

revised edition (1998) * Maxwell Staniforth (1969) ''Meditations''. Penguin. * Gregory Hays (2002) ''Meditations''. Random House. (181 pages) * C. Scot Hicks, David V. Hicks (2002) ''The Emperor's Handbook: A New Translation of the Meditations''. Simon & Schuster. * Martin Hammond (2006) ''Meditations''. Penguin Classics. *

Jacob Needleman Jacob Needleman (October 6, 1934 - November 28, 2022) was an American philosopher, author, and religious scholar. Needleman was Jewish and was educated at Harvard University, Yale University, and the University of Freiburg, Germany.Arethas of Caesarea Arethas of Caesarea ( el, Ἀρέθας; born c. 860 AD) was Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (modern Kayseri, Turkey) early in the 10th century, and is considered one of the most scholarly theologians of the Greek Orthodox Church. ...

John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners (1467 – 19 March 1533) was an English soldier, statesman and translator. Family John Bourchier, born about 1467, was the only son of Sir Humphrey Bourchier (d.1471 at the Battle of Barnet) and Elizabeth Ti ...

* ''

Memento mori ''Memento mori'' (Latin for 'remember that you ave todie'Sirmium Sirmium was a city in the Roman province of Pannonia, located on the Sava river, on the site of modern Sremska Mitrovica in the Vojvodina autonomous provice of Serbia. First mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by Illyria ...

References

Sources

* * *

External links

Studies

Translations

* translated by George Long, at ''

Wikisource Wikisource is an online digital library of free-content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project (each instance usually re ...

'' *
The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, by George Long
1862, at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary
''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus to Himself: an English translation with introductory study on stoicism and the last of the Stoics'', by G.H. Rendall
1898, at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary
''The Meditations'' by Marcus Aurelius
at ''

Project Gutenberg Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks." It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital libr ...

''
gutenberg.org
*

1792, at ''

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'' * ttps://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%22Marcus%20Aurelius%22 Multiple editions of the ''Meditations''at the ''

Internet Archive The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, ...

'' {{Authority control 2nd-century books Ancient Greek works Nerva–Antonine dynasty Stoicism Texts in Koine Greek Marcus Aurelius Ethics literature