Marine Forensic Science is

forensic science Forensic science combines principles of law and science to investigate criminal activity. Through crime scene investigations and laboratory analysis, forensic scientists are able to link suspects to evidence. An example is determining the time and ...

applied to legal issues involving marine life. It also refers to the scientific study and investigation of human incidents, accidents, or deaths occurring as a result of or involving bodies of water including

ocean The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth. The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as ''oceans'' (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Indian, Southern Ocean ...

stream A stream is a continuous body of water, body of surface water Current (stream), flowing within the stream bed, bed and bank (geography), banks of a channel (geography), channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a strea ...

s or

river A river is a natural stream of fresh water that flows on land or inside Subterranean river, caves towards another body of water at a lower elevation, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. A river may run dry before reaching the end of ...

lake A lake is often a naturally occurring, relatively large and fixed body of water on or near the Earth's surface. It is localized in a basin or interconnected basins surrounded by dry land. Lakes lie completely on land and are separate from ...

s, or

pond A pond is a small, still, land-based body of water formed by pooling inside a depression (geology), depression, either naturally or artificiality, artificially. A pond is smaller than a lake and there are no official criteria distinguishing ...

s.Erskine, L. K., Armstrong, J. E. (2021) Water-Related Death Investigation: Practical Methods and Forensic Applications. CRC Press. Marine forensics uses

law enforcement Law enforcement is the activity of some members of the government or other social institutions who act in an organized manner to enforce the law by investigating, deterring, rehabilitating, or punishing people who violate the rules and norms gove ...

to protect

fisheries Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place ( a.k.a., fishing grounds). Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farm ...

resources,

marine mammal Marine mammals are mammals that rely on marine ecosystems for their existence. They include animals such as cetaceans, pinnipeds, sirenians, sea otters and polar bears. They are an informal group, unified only by their reliance on marine enviro ...

s, and

endangered species An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, inv ...

. Pollution from rapid industrialization and other human activities caused declination in fisheries resources and coral reefs have threatened marine life. On October 21, 1972, the

Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) was the first act of Congress, act of the United States Congress to call specifically for an ecosystem approach to wildlife management. Authority MMPA was signed into law on October 21, 1972, by Preside ...

(MMPA) was enacted, was enacted, protecting fisheries resources, marine mammals, and endangered species.

DNA analysis Genetic testing, also known as DNA testing, is used to identify changes in DNA sequence or chromosome structure. Genetic testing can also include measuring the results of genetic changes, such as RNA analysis as an output of gene expression, or ...

plays a vital role in marine forensics, considering the flesh and blood of marine species in investigations, as well as recovery techniques for investigations that include human remains. However, a marine environment poses many challenges to the

taphonomy Taphonomy is the study of how organisms decay and become fossilized or preserved in the paleontological record. The term ''taphonomy'' (from Greek language, Greek , 'burial' and , 'law') was introduced to paleontology in 1940 by Soviet scientis ...

of dead remains and to the investigation itself affecting the accuracy of results.Ellingham, S., Perich, P., Tidball-Binz, M. (2017). The fate of human remains in a maritime context and feasibility for forensic humanitarian action to assist in their recovery and identification. ''Forensic Science International''. 279(1): 229-234. Many intrinsic and extrinsic factors have to be examined as the marine environment is constantly changing which can affect results. Thus, a marine scientist is essential to be observant and cautious at all times during investigations.

History

Marine forensics dates from the 1970s when Congress passed the series of acts that protected fisheries, marine mammals, and endangered species, called the Marine Mammal Protection Act. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 At first, the act aimed to prevent the population of whales, seals, and porpoises from dropping exponentially by the disturbance of human activities. It focuses on preventing the number one cause of death among marine mammals which is the accidental capture in commercial fishing and subsequent fishing line entanglement. After 1994, the act “prohibits acts or attempts of harassment, killing, and capturing marine mammals without prior approval with a permit.” However, these are the certain exceptions to the act: # Pre-MMPA specimens taken before December 21, 1972 # International Agreements entered into by the United States before December 21, 1972 # Alaska natives # Scientific research, public display, enhancing the survival or recovery of a species, and incidental take in commercial fisheries # Waivers granted by the U.S. Government The first International Marine Forensics Symposium was held in April 2002 at Washington, DC

Threats

Threats towards marine forensics involves

radioactive Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is conside ...

and chemical pollution from rapid

industrialization Industrialisation (British English, UK) American and British English spelling differences, or industrialization (American English, US) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an i ...

, fisheries and

coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in group ...

s in decline, and

global warming Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes ...

and carbon balanced that can no longer be kept since the water is very polluted compared from back then making the water unable to absorb as much carbon-dioxide as before and increase risks of global warming to occur

Waterborne diseases Waterborne diseases are conditions (meaning adverse effects on human health, such as death, disability, illness or disorders) caused by pathogenic micro-organisms that are transmitted by water. These diseases can be spread while bathing, washing ...

are a current threat towards marine forensics that are caused from an outbreak of various

microorganism A microorganism, or microbe, is an organism of microscopic scale, microscopic size, which may exist in its unicellular organism, single-celled form or as a Colony (biology)#Microbial colonies, colony of cells. The possible existence of unseen ...

s and chemicals which can lead to illness and death for marine life and humans.Erskine, L. K., Armstrong, J. E. (2021) Water-Related Death Investigation: Practical Methods and Forensic Applications. CRC Press. The Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Reporting System (WBDOSS) was created in 1971, and is a national surveillance system that collects data on waterborne diseases from all types of water. WBDOSS can report on chemicals in the water from

pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause harm. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the component ...

as well as

pathogen In biology, a pathogen (, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a Germ theory of d ...

s like

bacteria Bacteria (; : bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of Prokaryote, prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micr ...

, parasites, and

virus A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living Cell (biology), cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Viruses are ...

es that cause

gastrointestinal disease Gastrointestinal diseases (abbrev. GI diseases or GI illnesses) refer to diseases involving the Human gastrointestinal tract, gastrointestinal tract, namely the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum; and the accessory or ...

and

respiratory disease Respiratory diseases, or lung diseases, are pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange difficult in air-breathing animals. They include conditions of the respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, ...

Training

Due to the complications in the process, a marine forensics scientist is required to have certain sets of skills such as the way to ask appropriate questions, how to work with uncooperative witnesses, and the understanding the specific goals of the company's incident investigation program. Investigators also need background on how incidents evolve and the myriad events and attributes which can cause or contribute to the severity of an incident

Types of Evidence

Types of evidence varies depending on the severity of the case. With marine life cases, evidence can range from frozen fish fillets, scales, tissue, and bones, to coral reef or water samples In 2012, researchers at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science shows that tests can be taken on seafood to identify the ocean's origin of blue marlin. In forensic investigations involving incidents and deaths, evidence can range from the body itself, items and clothing, to environmental data such as water and soil samples, water and air temperatures,

Salinity Salinity () is the saltiness or amount of salt (chemistry), salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see also soil salinity). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water; the latter is dimensio ...

, depth readings, and current speeds.Erskine, L. K., Armstrong, J. E. (2021) Water-Related Death Investigation: Practical Methods and Forensic Applications. CRC Press. The faster an investigator gets to a scene and documents the surroundings, the more physical evidence will be preserved due to the environment being uncontrolled and constantly changing.Byard, W, R. (2015). Immersion deaths and drowning: issues arising in the investigation of bodies recovered from water. ''Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology, 11(1)'', 323-325.

Data Acquisition

DNA analysis is an essential tool in forensics science. As mentioned above, evidence will vary depending on the scenario. The process involves collecting and testing evidences in laboratories, along with analyzing evidences such as blood samples, dried tissue, fish fillets, and fish scales. In forensic investigations, due to the nature of the environment, numerous data is collected right at arrival. The temperature outside and inside the water, the depth of the water, how fast the water is flowing, and the salinity of water is recorded to help estimate

Corpse decomposition Decomposition is the process in which the Organ (anatomy), organs and Biomolecule, complex molecules of Carrion, animal and Cadaver, human bodies break down into simple organic matter over time. In vertebrates, five stages of decomposition are typ ...

changes and where the body could be located.Caruso, L. J. (2016). Decomposition Changes in Bodies Recovered from Water. ''Academic Forensic Pathology, 6(1)'', 19-27. 10.23907/2016.003 Marine Forensics utilizes diving, drones, and thermal imaging to help acquire data for the investigation.

Unmanned aerial vehicle An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or unmanned aircraft system (UAS), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft with no human pilot, crew, or passengers onboard, but rather is controlled remotely or is autonomous.De Gruyter Handbook of Dron ...

s or drones have become a popular technology used for a variety of tasks in law enforcement as they are able to cover large amounts of terrain that are hard to access in short periods of time minimizing the need for a ground search.Erskine, L. K., Armstrong, J. E. (2021) Water-Related Death Investigation: Practical Methods and Forensic Applications. CRC Press. UAV's provide overhead surveillance which may reveal hidden terrain or debris where certain items could be hiding not visible to the human eye. Advancements in technology have been making it easier to locate remains in a marine environment through the use of thermal imaging, which creates pictures using heat/

Infrared Infrared (IR; sometimes called infrared light) is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than that of visible light but shorter than microwaves. The infrared spectral band begins with the waves that are just longer than those ...

radiation by displaying various colors on a screen. Drones are being manufactured with thermal imaging to pair with the convenient overhead searching in order to detect any heat signature from the decomposition of a hidden body. Underwater search techniques have been developed for divers to use when searching for remains in a body of water. These patterns are the sweep pattern, pier-walk pattern, snag search, grid search, and overhead search which all allow the diver to search for any sized objects that may be in the water.

Controversies

Maritime

impacts the accuracy in results in forensics. Also, 80% and more maritime incidents are caused by human error. Many of these maritime incidents or deaths may have nothing to do with water, only coincidentally happen to be near water. In these scenarios, it will be crucial for the investigation to determine the true manner and cause of death through investigative techniques and an

Autopsy An autopsy (also referred to as post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause, mode, and manner of deat ...

.Erskine, L. K., Armstrong, J. E. (2021) Water-Related Death Investigation: Practical Methods and Forensic Applications. CRC Press. This is most common with natural diseases and injuries leading to a submersion in water like a

Heart attack A myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack, occurs when Ischemia, blood flow decreases or stops in one of the coronary arteries of the heart, causing infarction (tissue death) to the heart muscle. The most common symptom ...

Seizure A seizure is a sudden, brief disruption of brain activity caused by abnormal, excessive, or synchronous neuronal firing. Depending on the regions of the brain involved, seizures can lead to changes in movement, sensation, behavior, awareness, o ...

, beatings, even intoxication.

Environmental Factors

Temperatures

It is important to monitor the temperature of the air outside the water as well as inside the water as it will help in understanding decomposition of the remains. Normally, the temperature will be cooler in the water than the ambient air temperature which slows down the decomposition process, not including tropical bodies of water but due to the environment being uncontrolled and temperatures always changing, they must be recorded as soon as possible at arrival of the scene for accurate interpretation of the incident.

Salinity

Salinity refers to the amount of salt content in a body of water and cannot be overlooked in marine forensics as freshwater and saltwater have many differences in taphonomy and decomposition. In saltwater, decomposition will proceed at a slower rate than in

fresh water Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salt (chemistry), salts and other total dissolved solids. The term excludes seawater and brackish water, but it does include ...

due to the high sodium content drawing fluids out of organs and slowing bacterial activity, whereas in freshwater, fluids are absorbed quicker into organs and the bloodstream causing rupturing.Ellingham, S., Perich, P., Tidball-Binz, M. (2017). The fate of human remains in a maritime context and feasibility for forensic humanitarian action to assist in their recovery and identification. ''Forensic Science International''. 279(1): 229-234. It is important to know about salinity as it is responsible for

buoyancy Buoyancy (), or upthrust, is the force exerted by a fluid opposing the weight of a partially or fully immersed object (which may be also be a parcel of fluid). In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of t ...

and why objects and remains float in water. Knowing the salinity level of the body of water in question will aid in where evidence might be located such as at the bottom of water or floating near the surface.

Currents

Currents in water are a crucial factor to consider during marine investigations as they can answer many questions. If currents are involved in the body of water, it can drag/drift the evidence in question for a large distance to a location that does not match the wounds on the body adding confusion to the investigation. From drifting for a long distance, the remains/evidence can bump into artifacts like rocks or trees causing post-mortem injuries and abrasions which can confuse investigators understanding the true cause of death. Due to the buoyancy in saltwater like oceans, most remains float and will catch a tidal current causing it to drift for hundreds of kilometers, making it near impossible to find the remains, showing why marine investigators need to work as fast as possible at recovering evidence.Lunetta, P., Ebbesmeyer, C., Molenaar, J. (2013). Behaviour of Dead Bodies in Water. In: Bierens, J. (eds), Drowning. Springer. In freshwater, currents won't move the evidence too far from where it first was, but they risk getting post-mortem injuries from waterfalls,

rapids Rapids are sections of a river where the river bed has a relatively steep stream gradient, gradient, causing an increase in water velocity and turbulence. Flow, gradient, constriction, and obstacles are four factors that are needed for a rapid t ...

, and narrow banks (geography). Furthermore, when pollution from industrialization contaminates the water, tidal currents and river currents are able to spread it quite quickly with speeds from 5–100 miles per day, proving again why investigators need to be vigilant and work quickly at recovering evidence.

Animal Predation

Animal predation is a factor to consider when launching an investigation in a marine environment. The longer an investigation is drawn out, the more potential there is for animals and sea life to create extensive changes to the evidence in question before it can be removed.Byard, W, R. (2015). Immersion deaths and drowning: issues arising in the investigation of bodies recovered from water. ''Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology, 11(1)'', 323-325.

Sea lice Sea lice (singular: sea louse) are copepods (small crustaceans) of the family Caligidae within the order Siphonostomatoida. They are marine ectoparasites (external parasites) that feed on the mucus, epidermal tissue, and blood of host fish. Th ...

and

Shark Sharks are a group of elasmobranch cartilaginous fish characterized by a ribless endoskeleton, dermal denticles, five to seven gill slits on each side, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the ...

s are examples that can alter features of a body and create more confusion in the investigation as to the nature of certain wounds. Due to the nature of

food web A food web is the natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation of what-eats-what in an ecological community. Position in the food web, or trophic level, is used in ecology to broadly classify organisms as autotrophs or he ...

s, contaminants and pollution in water may spread rapidly from species to species if the problem is not solved quickly.

Related Laboratories and Organizations

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(
NOAA The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA ) is an American scientific and regulatory agency charged with forecasting weather, monitoring oceanic and atmospheric conditions, charting the seas, conducting deep-sea exploratio ...
)

The NOAA is the only laboratory in the United States for marine forensics

Northwest Fisheries Science Center (NWFSC)

Northwest Fisheries Science Center is a part the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) informally known as NOAA Fisheries. NWFSC also help NOAA Fisheries Office of Law Enforcement protect consumer interests. The agency also help to ensure that high consumer interest would not result in the rising of illegal activities such as food fraud.
VIMS Gloucester Point Campus

Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS)

“VIMS provides research, education, and advisory service in marine science to Virginia, the nation, and the world.” The research team members of VIMS includes Laurie Sorenson(graduate student), Jan McDowell(molecular biologist), and John Graves(professor).

Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB)

Marine Accident Investigation Branch is an independent division of the United Kingdom's Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions(DTLR).

Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC)

“ONC is the principal federal entity charged with coordination of nationwide efforts to implement and use the most advanced health information technology and the electronic exchange of health information. “

External links

Marine Forensics Symposium

References

{{Reflist Marine