Maria Lacerda de Moura
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Maria Lacerda de Moura (
Manhuaçu Manhuaçu is a municipality in Eastern Minas Gerais state, in Brazil. Its population was 91,169 (2020) and its area is 628 km2. Location Located 260 km from the state capital of Belo Horizonte, it is near the important road junction of BR 2 ...
, 16 May 1887 -
Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro ( , , ; literally 'River of January'), or simply Rio, is the capital of the state of the same name, Brazil's third-most populous state, and the second-most populous city in Brazil, after São Paulo. Listed by the GaWC as a b ...
, 20 March 1945) was a Brazilian teacher, writer and
anarcha-feminist Anarcha-feminism, also referred to as anarchist feminism, is a system of analysis which combines the principles and power analysis of anarchist theory with feminism. Anarcha-feminism closely resembles intersectional feminism. Anarcha-feminism ...
. The daughter of spiritist and
anti-clerical Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historical anti-clericalism has mainly been opposed to the influence of Roman Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secularism, which seeks to ...
parents, she grew up in the city of
Barbacena Barbacena is a municipality in the States of Brazil, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. As of 2020, the municipality had 138,204 inhabitants. The total area of the municipality is . It is in the foothills of the Serra da Mantiqueira south of the ...
, in the interior of
Minas Gerais Minas Gerais () is a state in Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product (GDP), and the fourth largest by area in the country. The state's capital and largest city, Belo Horizonte (literally ...
, where she graduated as a teacher at the Escola Normal Municipal de Barbacena and participated in official efforts to tackle social inequality through national
literacy Literacy in its broadest sense describes "particular ways of thinking about and doing reading and writing" with the purpose of understanding or expressing thoughts or ideas in written form in some specific context of use. In other words, huma ...
campaigns and educational reforms. She began to publish ''
crônica ''Crônica'' or ''crónica'' (''chronicle''; see spelling differences in Portuguese) is a Portuguese-language form of short writings about daily topics, published in newspaper or magazine columns. ''Crônicas'' are usually written in an informal, o ...
s'' in a local newspaper in 1912 and in 1918 she published her first book, ''Em torno da educação'', made up of ''crônicas'' and conferences she gave in Barbacena on the subject of education. From then on, she established contacts with journalists and writers from
Belo Horizonte Belo Horizonte (, ; ) is the sixth-largest city in Brazil, with a population around 2.7 million and with a metropolitan area of 6 million people. It is the 13th-largest city in South America and the 18th-largest in the Americas. The metropol ...
,
São Paulo São Paulo (, ; Portuguese for 'Saint Paul') is the most populous city in Brazil, and is the capital of the state of São Paulo, the most populous and wealthiest Brazilian state, located in the country's Southeast Region. Listed by the GaWC a ...
and
Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro ( , , ; literally 'River of January'), or simply Rio, is the capital of the state of the same name, Brazil's third-most populous state, and the second-most populous city in Brazil, after São Paulo. Listed by the GaWC as a b ...
. During this period, she met
José Oiticica José Rodrigues Oiticica (1882–1957), was a Brazilian anarchist, poet A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker ...
and adopted the
progressive education Progressive education, or protractivism, is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present. In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement. The term ''pro ...
methods of
Maria Montessori Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori ( , ; August 31, 1870 – May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician and educator best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. At an early age, Montessori e ...
and
Francesc Ferrer Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia (; January 14, 1859 – October 13, 1909), widely known as Francisco Ferrer (), was a Spanish radical freethinker, anarchist, and educationist behind a network of secular, private, libertarian schools in and aroun ...
. She moved to São Paulo in 1921, at the age of 34, and there she had contacts with the feminist movement and the labor movement of the time. She even collaborated with the feminist
Bertha Lutz Bertha Maria Júlia Lutz (August 2, 1894 – September 16, 1976) was a Brazilian zoologist, politician, and diplomat. Lutz became a leading figure in both the Americas, Pan American feminism, feminist movement and human rights movement. She was i ...
and presided over the International Women's Federation. In 1922, she broke with the women's associations, which were fundamentally concerned with
women's suffrage Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...
, because she considered that the fight for the right to vote answered a very limited part of women's needs. She collaborated assiduously with the labor and progressive press in São Paulo and in 1923 launched the magazine ''Renascença''. Between 1928 and 1937, she lived in a farming community in
Guararema Guararema is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo. The population is 30,136 (2020 est.) in an area of 270.82 km². The Florestan Fernandes School of the Landless Workers' Mo ...
, in the interior of São Paulo, formed by
individualist anarchists Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and to value independence and self-relia ...
and
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
,
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
, and
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
deserters Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or post without permission (a pass, liberty or leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with unauthorized absence (UA) or absence without leave (AWOL ), which ar ...
from
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. It was the period of her life in which she produced and acted the most, collaborating weekly in the newspaper ', where she established the polemic of greatest impact with the local fascist press; she gave conferences in
Uruguay Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...
and
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
, invited by anti-fascist educational institutions; she met Luiz Carlos Prestes, in exile in Buenos Aires; she gave pacifist conferences and triggered the anti-fascist campaign in São Paulo. The Guararema community was disbanded with
political repression Political repression is the act of a state entity controlling a citizenry by force for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing the citizenry's ability to take part in the political life of a society, thereb ...
during the Estado Novo. In 1938, Maria Lacerda moved to Rio de Janeiro, where she worked at
Rádio Mayrink Veiga Rádio Mayrink Veiga was a radio station in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It began broadcasting on January 21, 1926, and was closed in 1965 by the military dictatorship which ruled Brazil at that time. Rádio Mayrink Veiga was a key part of the Radio ...
reading
horoscope A horoscope (or other commonly used names for the horoscope in English include natal chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, cosmogram, vitasphere, radical chart, radix, chart wheel or simply chart) is an ast ...
s. She died on 20 March 1945. Considered one of the pioneers of
feminism in Brazil The origins of feminism in Brazil trace back to the 19th century. During the Empire of Brazil, some jurists attempted to legalize women's suffrage, with or without the consent of the husband. Later, the republican constitution of 1891 did not e ...
, her work dealt with subjects such as the condition of women,
free love Free love is a social movement that accepts all forms of love. The movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual and romantic matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. It stated that such issues were the concern ...
, the right to
sexual pleasure Sexual stimulation is any stimulus (including bodily contact) that leads to, enhances and maintains sexual arousal, and may lead to orgasm. Although sexual arousal may arise without physical stimulation, achieving orgasm usually requires physica ...
,
divorce Divorce (also known as dissolution of marriage) is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the ...
, conscientious motherhood,
prostitution Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in Sex work, sexual activity in exchange for payment. The definition of "sexual activity" varies, and is often defined as an activity requiring physical contact (e.g., sexual intercourse, n ...
, the fight against
clericalism Clericalism is the application of the formal, church-based, leadership or opinion of ordained clergy in matters of either the Church or broader political and sociocultural import. Clericalism is usually, if not always, used in a pejorative sense ...
,
fascism Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultra-nationalist political ideology and movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy an ...
, and
militarism Militarism is the belief or the desire of a government or a people that a state should maintain a strong military capability and to use it aggressively to expand national interests and/or values. It may also imply the glorification of the mili ...
, and established a link between the problem of
women's emancipation Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, ...
and the struggle for the emancipation of the individual from
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for Profit (economics), profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, pric ...
. Her positions share many similar aspects with those of later second-wave feminists.


Biography


Early years

In 1887, Maria Lacerda de Moura was born in
Manhuaçu Manhuaçu is a municipality in Eastern Minas Gerais state, in Brazil. Its population was 91,169 (2020) and its area is 628 km2. Location Located 260 km from the state capital of Belo Horizonte, it is near the important road junction of BR 2 ...
, in the
province A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or sovereign state, state. The term derives from the ancient Roman ''Roman province, provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire ...
of
Minas Gerais Minas Gerais () is a state in Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product (GDP), and the fourth largest by area in the country. The state's capital and largest city, Belo Horizonte (literally ...
. In 1891, when she was 4 years old, she moved with her parents and siblings to the city of
Barbacena Barbacena is a municipality in the States of Brazil, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. As of 2020, the municipality had 138,204 inhabitants. The total area of the municipality is . It is in the foothills of the Serra da Mantiqueira south of the ...
, where her father worked in the Orphans' Registry Office and her mother made
confectionery Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that are rich in sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult. In general, however, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories ...
. She began her studies at the
boarding school A boarding school is a school where pupils live within premises while being given formal instruction. The word "boarding" is used in the sense of "room and board", i.e. lodging and meals. As they have existed for many centuries, and now exten ...
of the city's
orphanage An orphanage is a Residential education, residential institution, total institution or group home, devoted to the Childcare, care of orphans and children who, for various reasons, cannot be cared for by their biological families. The parent ...
and, when she was 12, she enrolled in the Escola Normal Municipal de Barbacena. At that time, the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
maintained a dominant position over families, public education and politics in Minas Gerais. Due to her family's
spiritualist Spiritualism is the metaphysical school of thought opposing physicalism and also is the category of all spiritual beliefs/views (in monism and dualism) from ancient to modern. In the long nineteenth century The ''long nineteenth century'' i ...
and
anti-clerical Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historical anti-clericalism has mainly been opposed to the influence of Roman Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secularism, which seeks to ...
inclinations, from a young age, Maria Lacerda faced
discrimination Discrimination is the act of making unjustified distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong. People may be discriminated on the basis of race, gender, age, relig ...
by the bishops of the province.


Teaching in Barbacena and first writings

In 1904, she graduated as a teacher and, by 1908, she had become the director of the Barbacena Pedagogium. From this post, Maria Lacerda participated in a number of campaigns to address social inequality, by improving
literacy Literacy in its broadest sense describes "particular ways of thinking about and doing reading and writing" with the purpose of understanding or expressing thoughts or ideas in written form in some specific context of use. In other words, huma ...
rates and advancing
education reform Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. The meaning and education methods have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Historically, t ...
. She soon came to adopt the
progressive education Progressive education, or protractivism, is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present. In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement. The term ''pro ...
methods of the Italian feminist educator
Maria Montessori Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori ( , ; August 31, 1870 – May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician and educator best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. At an early age, Montessori e ...
and the Catalan anarchist pedagogue
Francesc Ferrer Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia (; January 14, 1859 – October 13, 1909), widely known as Francisco Ferrer (), was a Spanish radical freethinker, anarchist, and educationist behind a network of secular, private, libertarian schools in and aroun ...
. In 1912, she published her first ''
crônica ''Crônica'' or ''crónica'' (''chronicle''; see spelling differences in Portuguese) is a Portuguese-language form of short writings about daily topics, published in newspaper or magazine columns. ''Crônicas'' are usually written in an informal, o ...
s'' in a local newspaper, which caused a conflict with her relatives due to her lack of
moderation Moderation is the process of eliminating or lessening extremes. It is used to ensure normality throughout the medium on which it is being conducted. Common uses of moderation include: *Ensuring consistency and accuracy in the marking of stud ...
. In 1918, she collected a number of her ''crônicas'' and conference speeches into a book on education: ''Em torno da educação''. At this time, Maria Lacerda also began to form links with Barbacena's feminist associations. As she grew increasingly concerned with the condition that women found themselves in at the time, she began to look for ways to improve it, publicising a number of feminist initiatives that were taking place in Brazil's big cities. By 1919, she had joined the movement for
women's suffrage Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...
and enthusiastically took up the defense of
women's rights Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, ...
to
citizenship Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...
. As time went on, the news coming from the larger cities drew more of her attention away from her home town. In the following years, Maria Lacerda attended a series of conferences in other cities like
Juiz de Fora Juiz de Fora (, '' Outsider Judge''), also known as J.F., is a city in the southeastern Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, approximately from the state border with Rio de Janeiro. According to 2020 estimates the current population is about 57 ...
and Santos, which convinced her to finally leave Barbacena in 1921.


Feminist and anarchist activity in São Paulo

At the age of 34, Maria Lacerda moved to the Brazilian capital of
São Paulo São Paulo (, ; Portuguese for 'Saint Paul') is the most populous city in Brazil, and is the capital of the state of São Paulo, the most populous and wealthiest Brazilian state, located in the country's Southeast Region. Listed by the GaWC a ...
, where she joined the growing
feminist movement The feminist movement (also known as the women's movement, or feminism) refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for Radical politics, radical and Liberalism, liberal reforms on women's issues created by the inequality b ...
, and also made contact with the nascent
labor movement The labour movement or labor movement consists of two main wings: the trade union movement (British English) or labor union movement (American English) on the one hand, and the political labour movement on the other. * The trade union movement ...
. No longer working within the state's official framework, in the radical climate of São Paulo, she was able to develop her sociopolitical ideas and advance her pedagogical activities. While working as a private teacher, she also contributed articles about education to a number of independent and progressive publications, including ', ' and ', and by 1923, she was editing the progressive monthly magazine ''Renascença''. Through this publication, Maria Lacerda began to collaborate with the artist , who worked as the graphic designer for ''Renascença'' and the cover artist for ''Religião do amor e da beleza'', and who drew her towards the esoteric religion of
theosophy Theosophy is a religion established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion a ...
. Having already joined the feminist movement while she still lived in Barbacena, upon moving to São Paulo, Maria Lacerda joined
Bertha Lutz Bertha Maria Júlia Lutz (August 2, 1894 – September 16, 1976) was a Brazilian zoologist, politician, and diplomat. Lutz became a leading figure in both the Americas, Pan American feminism, feminist movement and human rights movement. She was i ...
in co-founding the International Women's Federation (IWF), which aimed to improve women's conditions and society as a whole through women's own combined efforts. Maria Lacerda became the IWF's President and focused her pedagogical efforts on creating a comprehensive curriculum for
women's education Female education is a catch-all term of a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education (primary education, secondary education, tertiary education, and health education in particular) for girls and women. It is frequently called girls ...
that included
women's history Women's history is the study of the role that women have played in history and the methods required to do so. It includes the study of the history of the growth of woman's rights throughout recorded history, personal achievement over a period of ...
. She also delegated Bertha Lutz to represent the IWF at the Pan-American Women's Conference in
Baltimore Baltimore ( , locally: or ) is the List of municipalities in Maryland, most populous city in the U.S. state of Maryland, fourth most populous city in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, and List of United States cities by popula ...
. But by 1922, she had already begun to break with the organization, as it was growing increasingly concerned only with women's suffrage, which Maria Lacerda herself considered to be an insufficient goal for the feminist movement. From this period, Maria Lacerda became closer with the Brazilian anarchist movement, despite a number of disagreements with other anarchists over her support for the Soviet education system spearhead by
Anatoly Lunacharsky Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky (russian: Анато́лий Васи́льевич Лунача́рский) (born Anatoly Aleksandrovich Antonov, – 26 December 1933) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and the first Bolshevik Soviet People's ...
. Despite their criticisms of her position on this issue, Maria Lacerda continued collaborating closeley with the anarchist and syndicalist movement well into the 1930s. In 1926, she became attracted to a form of
individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism is the branch of anarchism that emphasizes the individual and their Will (philosophy), will over external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems."What do I mean by individualism? I mean ...
from the works of
Han Ryner Jacques Élie Henri Ambroise Ner (7 December 1861 – 6 February 1938), also known by the pseudonym Han Ryner, was a French individualist anarchist philosopher and activist and a novelist. He wrote for publications such as ''L'Art social ...
, who greatly inspired her to adopt even more radical conceptions of
self-improvement Self-help or self-improvement is a self-guided improvement''APA Dictionary of Physicology'', 1st ed., Gary R. VandenBos, ed., Washington: American Psychological Association, 2007.—economically, intellectually, or emotionally—often with a subst ...
and
individual liberty Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may ...
.


Experience in Guararema and anti-fascist activism

In 1928, Maria Lacera moved to an agricultural commune in
Guararema Guararema is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo. The population is 30,136 (2020 est.) in an area of 270.82 km². The Florestan Fernandes School of the Landless Workers' Mo ...
, which had been established by a number of individualist anarchists,
immigrant workers Foreign workers or guest workers are people who work in a country other than one of which they are a citizen. Some foreign workers use a guest worker program in a country with more preferred job prospects than in their home country. Guest worker ...
and
deserters Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or post without permission (a pass, liberty or leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with unauthorized absence (UA) or absence without leave (AWOL ), which ar ...
from
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. The commune was structured without
hierarchy A hierarchy (from Greek: , from , 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important ...
, upholding
gender equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing d ...
,
workers' self-management Workers' self-management, also referred to as labor management and organizational self-management, is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organization's workforce. Self-management is a def ...
and a commitment to
nonviolence Nonviolence is the personal practice of not causing harm to others under any condition. It may come from the belief that hurting people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and it may refer to a general philosoph ...
. On the commune, Maria Lacerda implemented her methods of progressive education, teaching children the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
and
Italian language Italian (''italiano'' or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire. Together with Sardinian, Italian is the least divergent language from Latin. Spoken by about 85 m ...
s, educating them in history, poetry and nature, and even explaining the
social issues A social issue is a problem that affects many people within a society. It is a group of common problems in present-day society and ones that many people strive to solve. It is often the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's cont ...
of the time. While staying on the commune, Maria Lacerda reached the height of her writing career, publishing a large number of books, articles and conferences, which had a wide-ranging impact. She also maintained her weekly column in the São Paulo newspaper ''O Combate'', in which she published an article that criticised the reaction to the death of the Italian aviator
Carlo Del Prete Carlo Del Prete (21 August 1897 – 16 August 1928) was a pioneer aviator from Italy. Early career Born in Lucca, Italy, Del Prete joined the ''Regia Marina'' (Italy's Royal Navy) and served aboard submarines during World War I. After the war ...
, denouncing the
militarism Militarism is the belief or the desire of a government or a people that a state should maintain a strong military capability and to use it aggressively to expand national interests and/or values. It may also imply the glorification of the mili ...
and fascistic tendencies displayed by much of the Brazilian clergy and mainstream media. This polemic particularly aggravated
Italian Brazilian Italian Brazilians ( it, italo-brasiliani, pt, ítalo-brasileiros) are Brazilians of full or partial Italian descent. Italian Brazilians are the largest number of people with full or partial Italian ancestry outside Italy, with São Paulo being ...
newspapers such as ', which provoked a number of rallies against her that even resulted in the destruction of newspaper presses. Despite this violent reaction against them, ''O Combate'' maintained their support of Maria Lacerda. The rise of
fascism in Brazil Fascism in South America is an assortment of political parties and movements modelled on fascism. Although originating and primarily associated with Europe, the ideology crossed the Atlantic Ocean between the world wars and had an influence on Sout ...
during the early 1930s, particularly with the establishment of groups like
Brazilian Integralist Action Brazilian Integralist Action (Portuguese: ''Ação Integralista Brasileira'', AIB) was an integralist/fascist political party in Brazil. It was based upon the ideology of Brazilian Integralism as developed by its leader Plínio Salgado. Brazilian ...
, aroused Maria Lacerda to begin engaging in
antifascist Anti-fascism is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were ...
activism. In this period, she doubled down on her anticlericalism, speaking publicly in favour of
freedom of thought Freedom of thought (also called freedom of conscience) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact, viewpoint, or thought, independent of others' viewpoints. Overview Every person attempts to have a cognitive proficiency by ...
and participating in anticlerical and secularist coalitions, which agitated against the rising power of the Catholic Church. Maria Lacerda also held a series of anti-war and anti-fascist conferences in Brazil's major cities, and participated in others held in
Uruguay Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...
and
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
, where she met the exiled Brazilian communist
Luís Carlos Prestes Luís Carlos Prestes (January 3, 1898 – March 7, 1990) was a Brazilian revolutionary and politician who served as the general-secretary of the Brazilian Communist Party from 1943 to 1980 and a senator for the Federal District from 1946 to 1948 ...
and interviewed him for ''O Combate''. She eventually came to participate in the Women's Committee Against War and Fascism and even broke with the
Rosicrucian Order Rosicrucianism is a spiritual and cultural movement that arose in Europe in the early 17th century after the publication of several texts purported to announce the existence of a hitherto unknown esoteric order to the world and made seeking its ...
due to its ties with
Nazism Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Na ...
in
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
. Maria Lacerda's anti-fascist activism culminated in 1935, with the publication of two books: ''Clero e fascismo – horda de embrutecedores'' and ''Fascismo – filho dilecto da Igreja e do capital''. Although largely well-received amongst anti-fascists, the books were sharply criticised by the anarchists of ''A Plebe'', who claimed them to be full of inconsistencies, inaccuracies and contradictions, while particularly taking issue with Maria Lacerda's lack of mention of anarchists and implied support for
state communism A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state that is administered and governed by a communist party guided by Marxism–Leninism. Marxism–Leninism was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, the Cominte ...
. Meanwhile, Brazilian communists criticised her books for their advocacy of
pacifism Pacifism is the opposition or resistance to war, militarism (including conscription and mandatory military service) or violence. Pacifists generally reject theories of Just War. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaign ...
, which they rejected in favour of a violent
social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political syst ...
. Following the
1937 Brazilian coup d'état The 1937 Brazilian coup d'état (), also known as the ''Estado Novo'' coup (), was a military coup led by President Getúlio Vargas with the support of the Brazilian Armed Forces on 10 November 1937. Vargas had risen to power in 1930 with ...
, which established the Estado Novo, the commune at Gaurarema became a target for police repression, resulting in the arrest and deportation of many of the community's members, as well as a number of
book burning Book burning is the deliberate destruction by fire of books or other written materials, usually carried out in a public context. The burning of books represents an element of censorship and usually proceeds from a cultural, religious, or politi ...
s. In the wake of the coup, Maria Lacerda spent months in hiding, before returning to her home city of Barbacena, where she attempted to resume her work as a school teacher and began practising in the
occult The occult, in the broadest sense, is a category of esoteric supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving otherworldly agency, such as magic and mysticism a ...
.


Final years

By 1938, Maria Lacerda was beginning to suffer from health problems. That year, she moved to
Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro ( , , ; literally 'River of January'), or simply Rio, is the capital of the state of the same name, Brazil's third-most populous state, and the second-most populous city in Brazil, after São Paulo. Listed by the GaWC as a b ...
, where she passed between the neighbourhoods of Copacabana and
Tijuca Tijuca () (meaning marsh or swamp in the Tupi language, from ''ty'' ("water") and ''îuk'' ("rotten")) is a neighbourhood of the Northern Zone of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It comprises the region of Saens Peña and Afonso Pena squar ...
, before finally settling in
Ilha do Governador Governador Island (Ilha do Governador, in Portuguese language, Portuguese; literally Governor's Island, in English language, English) is the largest island in Guanabara Bay, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It has a population of about 211,018 inhabit ...
. While continuing to teach, she fell deeper into spiritualism, reading
horoscope A horoscope (or other commonly used names for the horoscope in English include natal chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, cosmogram, vitasphere, radical chart, radix, chart wheel or simply chart) is an ast ...
s at
Radio Mayrink Veiga Radio is the technology of signaling and telecommunication, communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device ...
and closely collaborating with the
Christian anarchist Christian anarchism is a Christian movement in political theology that claims anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels. It is grounded in the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately an ...
professor Aníbal Vaz de Melo. In 1944, she gave her last lecture, titled ''O silêncio'', at the Antique Rosicrucian Fraternity, in which she discussed
Pythagoreanism Pythagoreanism originated in the 6th century BC, based on and around the teachings and beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans. Pythagoras established the first Pythagorean community in the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek col ...
. Months before the end of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
in 1945, Maria Lacerda de Moura died and was buried in Saint John the Baptist's Cemetery.


Personal life

From 1905 to 1925, she was married to the civil servant Carlos Ferreira de Moura, with whom she remained lifelong friends. Although the couple bore no children of their own, in 1912, they adopted Maria Lacerda's nephew Jair and an orphan named Carminda. When Jair joined
Brazilian Integralist Action Brazilian Integralist Action (Portuguese: ''Ação Integralista Brasileira'', AIB) was an integralist/fascist political party in Brazil. It was based upon the ideology of Brazilian Integralism as developed by its leader Plínio Salgado. Brazilian ...
in 1935, Maria Lacerda reacted with disgust, publishing an open letter to him in '' A Lanterna'', in which she publicly rebuked him for his decision. While living in Guararema, Maria Lacerda had a relationship with her fellow teacher André Néblind, which lasted until his arrest and deportation following the 1937 coup.


Thought and work

Although Maria Lacerda herself rejected many of the labels presented to her by her contemporaries, her work has been closest identified with
individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism is the branch of anarchism that emphasizes the individual and their Will (philosophy), will over external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems."What do I mean by individualism? I mean ...
, due to her staunch rejection of all forms of
social inequality Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. It posses and creates gender c ...
and the institutions that perpetuated it, including the
state State may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State * ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States * ''Our S ...
, the
exploitation of labour Exploitation of labour (also known as labor) is a concept defined as, in its broadest sense, one agent taking unfair advantage of another agent. It denotes an unjust social relationship based on an asymmetry of power or unequal exchange of value be ...
and
violence Violence is the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy. Other definitions are also used, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as "the intentional use of physical force or Power (social and p ...
. Her individualism, and especially her pacifism, drew directly from the
nonviolent resistance Nonviolent resistance (NVR), or nonviolent action, sometimes called civil resistance, is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, cons ...
practised and preached by
Jesus Christ Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
,
Mohandas Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
and
Leo Tolstoy Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
. Her activism within educational, anti-clerical and anti-fascist causes brought her closer to many other militants, drawing her particularly close with
Brazilian anarchists Brazilian commonly refers to: * Something of, from or relating to Brazil * Brazilian Portuguese, the dialect of the Portuguese language used mostly in Brazil * Brazilians, the people (citizens) of Brazil, or of Brazilian descent Brazilian may also ...
, especially after breaking with the suffragists over her criticisms of
representative democracy Representative democracy, also known as indirect democracy, is a type of democracy where elected people represent a group of people, in contrast to direct democracy. Nearly all modern Western-style democracies function as some type of represen ...
. Drawing on the positions of individualist anarchism, Maria Lacerda also defended self-managed small property, without labor exploitation. She ultimately aspired to the establishment of
barter In trade, barter (derived from ''baretor'') is a system of exchange in which participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. Economists distingu ...
economy, as she believed that without
financial capital Financial capital (also simply known as capital or equity in finance, accounting and economics) is any economic resource measured in terms of money used by entrepreneurs and businesses to buy what they need to make their products or to provide ...
, it would be impossible to finance war. Maria Lacerda's work is generally characterised by its
eloquence Eloquence (from French ''eloquence'' from Latin ''eloquentia'') is fluent, elegant, persuasive, and forceful speech, persuading an audience. Eloquence is both a natural talent and improved by knowledge of language, study of a specific subject ...
, displaying a clear intent to educate the reader for the purpose of their individual
emancipation Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure economic and social rights, political rights or equality, often for a specifically disenfranchis ...
.


Feminism

From as early as 1918, Maria Lacerda advocated for
women's rights Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, ...
to
citizenship Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...
,
education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty. Va ...
and
choice A choice is the range of different things from which a being can choose. The arrival at a choice may incorporate motivators and models. For example, a traveler might choose a route for a journey based on the preference of arriving at a giv ...
, complete
gender equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing d ...
and the elimination of
sexism Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls.There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primari ...
. Although she initially engaged in the movement for
women's suffrage Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...
, she came to consider voting rights to be a limited goal for the
feminist movement The feminist movement (also known as the women's movement, or feminism) refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for Radical politics, radical and Liberalism, liberal reforms on women's issues created by the inequality b ...
, which she believed should push for further
emancipation Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure economic and social rights, political rights or equality, often for a specifically disenfranchis ...
. She blamed
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for Profit (economics), profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, pric ...
and
misogyny Misogyny () is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women. It is a form of sexism that is used to keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the societal roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practiced fo ...
for gender inequality and for the proliferation of
prostitution in Brazil Prostitution in Brazil is legal, in terms of exchanging sex for money, as there are no laws forbidding adults from being professional sex workers, but it is illegal to operate a brothel or to employ sex workers in any other way.
, considering that society had made women into slaves of both money and men. Her feminism was also infused with
anticlericalism Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historical anti-clericalism has mainly been opposed to the influence of Roman Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secularism, which seeks to ...
, as she also considered the Catholic clergy's institutional power over families and the education system to be responsible for gender inequality. She additionally contested the views of the Portuguese physician
Miguel Bombarda Miguel Augusto Bombarda (6 March 1851 – 3 October 1910) was a Portuguese physician, psychiatrist, and politician. He is perhaps most widely remembered as one of the major conspirators of the 5 October 1910 revolution, although he was shot and ...
, who had claimed there to be biological and moral reasons for institutional gender inequality.


Free love

Maria Lacerda criticised traditional
sexual morality Sexual ethics (also known as sex ethics or sexual morality) is a branch of philosophy that considers the ethics or morality or otherwise in sexual behavior. Sexual ethics seeks to understand, evaluate and critique interpersonal relationships and ...
as inherently repressive. She instead advocated for comprehensive
sex education Sex education, also known as sexual education, sexuality education or sex ed, is the instruction of issues relating to human sexuality, including emotional relations and responsibilities, human sexual anatomy, Human sexual activity, sexual acti ...
, the normalization of
free love Free love is a social movement that accepts all forms of love. The movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual and romantic matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. It stated that such issues were the concern ...
, and women's rights to
sexual pleasure Sexual stimulation is any stimulus (including bodily contact) that leads to, enhances and maintains sexual arousal, and may lead to orgasm. Although sexual arousal may arise without physical stimulation, achieving orgasm usually requires physica ...
,
divorce Divorce (also known as dissolution of marriage) is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the ...
and
abortion Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of pregn ...
. She denounced the
social contract In moral and political philosophy Political philosophy or political theory is the philosophical study of government, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions and the relationships betw ...
, as she felt it implicitly upheld the male dominance over women's bodies. In ''Civilização – tronco de escravos,'' she stated that she considered
monogamy Monogamy ( ) is a form of dyadic relationship in which an individual has only one partner during their lifetime. Alternately, only one partner at any one time (serial monogamy) — as compared to the various forms of non-monogamy (e.g., polyga ...
to be incompatible with human rights and social progress, as it legally held a man's family to be his
private property Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property and personal property, which is owned by a state entity, and from collective or ...
, which was the basis for
social stratification Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political). As ...
. To Maria Lacerda, the
nuclear family A nuclear family, elementary family, cereal-packet family or conjugal family is a family group consisting of parents and their children (one or more), typically living in one home residence. It is in contrast to a single-parent family, the larger ...
, as upheld by the state and the Catholic clergy, was the root of the institutional repression of women's bodies and minds. In ''Religião do amor e da beleza'', she proposed the abolition of gender inequalities and the raising of women's consciousness. Inspired by the work of
Han Ryner Jacques Élie Henri Ambroise Ner (7 December 1861 – 6 February 1938), also known by the pseudonym Han Ryner, was a French individualist anarchist philosopher and activist and a novelist. He wrote for publications such as ''L'Art social ...
, she held the expression of plural love to be the best path towards social progress, as it would subdue
crimes of passion A crime of passion (French: ''crime passionnel''), in popular usage, refers to a violent crime, especially homicide, in which the perpetrator commits the act against someone because of sudden strong impulse such as anger rather than as a premed ...
associated with monogamy and eliminate the economic exploitation of women through prostitution. For Maria Lacerda, a woman's liberation lay in her ability to choose her own partner and support herself. She differentiated her own idea of plural love from the "Fraternity of Love" advocated by
Émile Armand Émile Armand (26 March 1872 – 19 February 1962), pseudonym of Ernest-Lucien Juin Armand, was an influential French individualist anarchist at the beginning of the 20th century and also a dedicated free love/polyamory, intentional community, ...
, which she considered to be the extension of marriage to a whole group and thus potentially more oppressive than monogamy. She also criticised
Alexandra Kollontai Alexandra Mikhailovna Kollontai (russian: Алекса́ндра Миха́йловна Коллонта́й, née Domontovich, Домонто́вич;  – 9 March 1952) was a Russian revolutionary, politician, diplomat and Theoretician ...
's party political conception of love, which she felt would subordinate the free love of both men and women to the interests of the
political class Political class, or political elite is a concept in comparative political science, originally developed by Italian political theorist Gaetano Mosca (1858–1941). It refers to the relatively small group of activists that is highly aware and active ...
.


Anti-fascism

Maria Lacerda was a prominent figure within Brazilian anti-fascism, publicly expressing her opposition to Italian fascism,
German Nazism Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Naz ...
and
Brazilian Integralism Brazilian Integralism ( pt, integralismo) was a political movement in Brazil, created in October 1932. Founded and led by Plínio Salgado, a literary figure who was somewhat famous for his participation in the 1922 Modern Art Week. The movement h ...
, which she considered to be modern expressions of the clerical
inquisition The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
and the
counterreformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
. She saw fascism as the culmination of an alliance between
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for Profit (economics), profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, pric ...
,
clericalism Clericalism is the application of the formal, church-based, leadership or opinion of ordained clergy in matters of either the Church or broader political and sociocultural import. Clericalism is usually, if not always, used in a pejorative sense ...
and
statism In political science, statism is the doctrine that the political authority of the state is legitimate to some degree. This may include economic and social policy, especially in regard to taxation and the means of production. While in use sinc ...
, which took form in fascism's
political repression Political repression is the act of a state entity controlling a citizenry by force for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing the citizenry's ability to take part in the political life of a society, thereb ...
. To Maria Lacerda, the origins of fascism lay in the social repression carried out by the Church and in the authoritarian character of the nuclear family. He written works on the subject particularly focus on the alliance between fascism and the Catholic Church, which she considered to have formed as a way to combat the risk of a
social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political syst ...
.


Pacifism

Maria Lacerda's anti-fascism was also expressed through her
pacifism Pacifism is the opposition or resistance to war, militarism (including conscription and mandatory military service) or violence. Pacifists generally reject theories of Just War. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaign ...
, as she held war to be the culmination of fascistic policy. Drawing from the pacifist philosophy of
Leo Tolstoy Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
,
Mohandas Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
and
Romain Rolland Romain Rolland (; 29 January 1866 – 30 December 1944) was a French dramatist, novelist, essayist, art historian and Mysticism, mystic who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1915 "as a tribute to the lofty idealism of his literary pro ...
, she proposed a central role for women in anti-war agitation, advocating for a campaign of
nonviolent resistance Nonviolent resistance (NVR), or nonviolent action, sometimes called civil resistance, is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, cons ...
through the refusal of
civil service The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil servants hired on professional merit rather than appointed or elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leaders ...
and the carrying out of a
sex strike A sex strike (sex boycott), or more formally known as Lysistratic nonaction, is a method of nonviolent resistance in which one or more persons refrain from or refuse sex with partners until policy or social demands are met. It is a form of tem ...
. While calling for
direct action Direct action originated as a political activist term for economic and political acts in which the actors use their power (e.g. economic or physical) to directly reach certain goals of interest, in contrast to those actions that appeal to oth ...
against the authorities, she also rejected the use of revolutionary violence, as she considered the aim of social revolution to be an end to all forms of violence and authority.


Education

Maria Lacerda centred education as a non-violent means for reforming society. She adopted an anarchist pedagogical practice, in opposition to the existing Brazilian educational system, which she considered to be a fundamentally
reactionary In political science, a reactionary or a reactionist is a person who holds political views that favor a return to the ''status quo ante'', the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics abse ...
institution that perpetuated inequality. Influenced by the rationalist pedagogy of
Francesc Ferrer Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia (; January 14, 1859 – October 13, 1909), widely known as Francisco Ferrer (), was a Spanish radical freethinker, anarchist, and educationist behind a network of secular, private, libertarian schools in and aroun ...
, she advocated for
universal access to education Universal access to education is the ability of all people to have equal opportunity in education, regardless of their social class, race, gender, sexuality, ethnic background or physical and mental disabilities. The term is used both in colle ...
as a necessary step in the advancement of
liberty Liberty is the ability to do as one pleases, or a right or immunity enjoyed by prescription or by grant (i.e. privilege). It is a synonym for the word freedom. In modern politics, liberty is understood as the state of being free within society fr ...
and
social equality Social equality is a state of affairs in which all individuals within a specific society have equal rights, liberties, and status, possibly including civil rights, freedom of expression, autonomy, and equal access to certain public goods and ...
, as well as in the progression of women's liberation.


Recognition and legacy

Throughout her life, Maria Lacerda adopted a number of positions similar to those later expounded by
second-wave feminism Second-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity that began in the early 1960s and lasted roughly two decades. It took place throughout the Western world, and aimed to increase equality for women by building on previous feminist gains. Wh ...
, especially in her criticisms of traditional sexual morality and the
culture of Domesticity The Culture of Domesticity (often shortened to Cult of Domesticity) or Cult of True Womanhood is a term used by historians to describe what they consider to have been a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the 19th cen ...
. In addition to her many written works that denounced gender inequality and exploitation, several of her articles were published in
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
and Argentine anarchist journals during the 1920s and 1930s, including ''Estudios'' and ''La Revista Blanca''. In 1984, in the midst of growing interest in
gender studies Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to analysing gender identity and gendered representation. Gender studies originated in the field of women's studies, concerning women, feminism, gender, and politics. The field ...
in Brazil, the publication of Miriam Moreira Leite's biography on Maria Lacerda de Moura revitalized the study of her life and work. Since then, several studies on her work have been carried out in different areas of the
human science Human science (or human sciences in the plural), also known as humanistic social science and moral science (or moral sciences), studies the philosophical, biological, social, and cultural aspects of human life. Human science aims to expand our ...
s. In 2003, the Image and Sound in Anthropology Laboratory of the
University of São Paulo The University of São Paulo ( pt, Universidade de São Paulo, USP) is a public university in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. It is the largest Brazilian public university and the country's most prestigious educational institution, the best ...
made a thirty minute documentary, entitled ''Maria Lacerda de Moura - Trajetória de uma rebel'', and in 2005, an anthology of Maria Lacerda de Moura's writings was published by her biographer Miriam Moreira Leite.


Selected works

* ''Em torno da Educação'' ( en, On Education, italic=yes) (1918) * ''Renovação'' ( en, Renovation, italic=yes) (1919) * ''A mulher é uma degenerada?'' ( en, Is the woman a degenerated being?, italic=yes) (1924) * ''Religião do amor e da beleza'' ( en, Religion of love and beauty, italic=yes) (1926) * ''Clero e Fascismo, horda de embrutecedores'' ( en, Clergy and Fascism, horde of brutalisers, italic=yes) (1933) * ''Fascismo – filho dileto da Igreja e do Capital'' ( en, Fascism - beloved child of the Church and Capital, italic=yes) (1933) * ''O Silêncio'' ( en, The Silence, italic=yes) (1944)


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links

* * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Lacerda De Moura, Maria 1887 births 1945 deaths 20th-century Brazilian educators 20th-century Brazilian women writers Anarcha-feminists Anarchist writers Anarcho-pacifists Brazilian anarchists Brazilian educational theorists Brazilian feminist writers Brazilian libertarians Brazilian pacifists Brazilian political writers Brazilian spiritualists Brazilian women journalists Female anti-fascists Free love advocates Gandhians Individualist anarchists Individualist feminists Non-interventionism Opinion journalists Pacifist feminists People from Minas Gerais Rosicrucians