Mangalore

Mangalore (), officially known as Mangaluru, is a major port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats about west of Bangalore, the state capital, 20 km north of Karnataka–Kerala border, 297 km south of Goa. Mangalore is the state's only city to have all four modes of transport—air, road, rail and sea. The population of the urban agglomeration was 619,664  national census of India. It is known for being one of the locations of the Indian strategic petroleum reserves.

The city developed as a port in the Arabian Sea during ancient times, and has since become a major port of India that handles 75 percent of India's coffee and cashew exports. It is also the country's seventh largest container port. Mangalore has been ruled by several major powers, including the Kadambas, Alupas, Vijayanagar Empire, Keladi Nayaks, and the Portuguese. The city was a source of contention between the British and the Kingdom of Mysore rulers Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, and was eventually annexed by the British in 1799. Mangalore remained part of the Madras Presidency until India's independence in 1947 and was unified with Mysore State (now called Karnataka) in 1956.

Mangalore is also the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada district; it is a commercial, industrial, educational, healthcare, and startup hub. The city's international airport is the second-largest and second-busiest airport in Karnataka. Mangalore City Corporation is responsible for the civic administration which manages the 60 wards of the city. Its landscape is characterised by rolling hills, coconut palms, rivers, and hard laterite soil. India's first 3D planetarium with 8K resolution display is located in the city. Mangalore is included as one of the cities in the Smart Cities Mission list and is among the 100 smart cities to be developed in India. It has an average elevation of above mean sea level. It has a tropical monsoon climate and is under the influence of the southwest monsoon. , Mangalore was ranked the 48th best city in the world to live in by a US survey, and the only Indian city in the top 50. It has its own International Airport which is around 15 km from the city.

Etymology

Mangalore was named after the deity Mangaladevi, the presiding deity of the Mangaladevi Temple or a synonym of Tara Bhagvati of the Vajrayana Buddhist sect. According to local legend a princess named Parimala or Premaladevi from Malabar renounced her kingdom and became a disciple of Matsyendranath, the founder of the Nath tradition. Having converted ''Premaladevi'' to the ''Nath'' sect, Matsyendranath renamed her ''Mangaladevi''. She arrived in the area with Matsyendranath but had to settle near Bolar in Mangalore because she fell ill on the way. When she died, the people consecrated the Mangaladevi temple at Bolar in her honour. The city was named for the temple.

One of the earliest references to the city's name was in 715 CE when Pandyan King Chettian called the city ''Mangalapuram''. The city and the coastal region were part of the Pandyan Kingdom. According to K.V. Ramesh, president of the Place Names Society of India, ''Mangaluru'' was first used in 1345 CE during the Vijayanagar rule. Many ''shilashasanas'' (stones) of the Vijayanagar period refer the city as ''Mangalapura''. Before then during the Alupa dynasty period, it was referred to as ''Mangalapura'' (''Mangala'' means 'auspicious'). In the Kannada language, the city is known as ''Mangaluru'', a reference to Mangaladevi (the suffix ''uru'' means town or city). Mangalore was an important centre of Indian Ocean trade on Malabar coast in earlier times. Hence it was also known by the name ''Manjalūr'' in Arabic. During British rule from 1799, the anglicised version ''Mangalore'' became the official appellation. According to historian George M. Moraes, however, the word ''Mangalore'' is the Portuguese corruption of ''Mangaluru''. The city's name appears on maps as far back as the 1652  Sanson Map of India.

Mangalore's diverse communities have different names for the city in their languages. In Tulu which is the region's primary spoken language, the city is called ''Kudla'', meaning ''junction'' because it is situated at the confluence of the Netravati and Gurupura rivers. In Konkani Mangalore is referred to as ''Kodiyal'' and the Beary name for the city is ''Maikala''. In Malayalam the city is called "Mangalapuran". Mangalore was officially renamed to "Mangaluru" by the Karnataka government on 1 November 2014.

History

Early and medieval history

Mangalore's historical importance is highlighted by the many references to the city by foreign travellers. During the first century CE, the Roman historian Pliny the Elder referred to a place called "Nitrias" and said it was an undesirable place for disembarkation because of the pirates who frequented its vicinity, while Greek second-century historian Ptolemy referenced a place named "Nitra". These references were probably about an area with the Netravati River which flows through Mangalore. In his sixth-century work '' Christian Topography'', Cosmas Indicopleustes (a Greek monk) mentions Malabar as being the chief seat of the pepper trade and ''Mangarouth'' (port of Mangalore) as one of the five pepper markets which exported pepper.

According to Kerala Muslim tradition, the Masjid Zeenath Baksh at Mangalore is one of the oldest mosques in Indian subcontinent. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who left from Dharmadom to Mecca and converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). According to ''Qissat Shakarwati Farmad'', the ''Masjids'' at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayani ( Koyilandy), and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar; they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in Indian Subcontinent.Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.Pg 58, Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978 Three of them, Mangalore, Barkur, and Kasaragod, are in Tulu Nadu.

Mangalore is considered the heart of a distinct multi-linguistic cultural region, the homeland of the Tulu-speaking people. In the third century BCE, the town formed part of the Maurya Empire, which was ruled by the Buddhist emperor Ashoka of Magadha. From the third to the sixth century CE, the Kadamba dynasty, whose capital was based in Banavasi in North Canara, ruled over the entire Canara region as independent rulers. From the middle of the seventh century to the end of the 14th century, the South Canara region was ruled by its native Alupa rulers, who ruled over the region as feudatories of major regional dynasties like the Chalukyas of Badami, Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, Chalukyas of Kalyani , and Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra. An Old Malayalam inscription (part of the Ramanthali inscriptions which date to 1075 CE), mentions king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of Alupa dynasty of Mangalore. It can be found at Ezhimala (the former headquarters of Mushika dynasty) near Cannanore, in the North Malabar region of Kerala.

During the 1130s and 1140s, during the reign of the Alupa king Kavi Alupendra (1110–1160), the city was home to the Tunisian Jewish merchant Abraham Ben Yiju. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta, who visited Mangalore in 1342, referred to it as ''Manjarur'' and stated the town was situated on a large estuary called the ''Estuary of the wolf'', which was the greatest estuary in the country of Malabar. By 1345 the Vijayanagara rulers brought the region under their control.

During the Vijayanagara period (1345–1550), South Canara was divided into Mangalore and Barkur ''rajyas'' (provinces), and two governors were appointed to look after each of them from Mangalore and Barkur. Often a single governor ruled over both Mangalore and Barkur ''rajyas''; when the authority passed to the Keladi rulers (1550–1763), they only had a governor at Barkur. In 1448 Abdur Razzaq who was the Persian ambassador of Sultan Shah Rukh of Samarkand, visited Mangalore ''en route'' to the Vijayanagara court. The Italian traveller Ludovico di Varthema, who visited India in 1506, said he saw nearly sixty ships laden with rice ready to sail from the port of Mangalore.

Foundation and early modern history

In 1498, European influence in Mangalore began when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at the nearby St Mary's Islands, just after his arrival at Koyilandy, Kozhikode. The Portuguese acquired many commercial interests in Canara in the 16th century. Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529), the ruler of the Vijaynagara empire maintained a friendly relationship with the Portuguese, whose trade slowly grew and they strove to destroy the coastal Arab and Mappila trade. In 1524, Vasco da Gama ordered the blockading of rivers after he heard the Muslim merchants of Kozhikode had agents at Mangalore and Basrur. In 1526, the Portuguese under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio took possession of Mangalore. The coastal trade passed into Portuguese hands.

In 1550, the Vijayanagara ruler Sadashiva Raya entrusted to Sadashiv Nayaka of Keladi with administering the coastal region of Canara. By 1554, he established political authority over South Canara. The 16th century work '' Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen'' written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II appears to be the first historical work written in detail about the contemporary history of Mangalore. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Tulu Nadu and Malabar coast.A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
Book

/ref>Roland E. Miller.
''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015

After the disintegration of the Vijaynagara Empire in 1565, the rulers of Keladi attained greater power in dealing with the coastal Canara region. They continued the Vijayanagara administrative system and the provinces of Mangalore and Barkur continued to exist. The governor of Mangalore also acted as the governor of the Keladi army in his province. The Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle visited here in 1623–1624. In 1695, Arabs burnt the town in retaliation to Portuguese restrictions on Arab trade.

In 1763, Hyder Ali, the ''de facto'' ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, conquered Mangalore,
which was brought under his administration until 1767. Mangalore was ruled by the British East India Company from 1767 to 1783, but Hyder Ali's son Tipu Sultan took it from their control in 1783 and renamed it "Jalalabad". The Second Anglo–Mysore War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore by Tipu Sultan and the British East India Company on 11 March 1784. After the defeat of Tipu at the Fourth Anglo–Mysore War, the city remained under British control. South Canara district was the headquarters under the Madras Presidency.

Francis Buchanan, a Scottish physician who visited Mangalore in 1801, said the city was a prosperous port with plentiful trade. The main commodity of export was rice; it went to Muscat, Bombay, Goa, and Malabar. ''Supari'' ( Betel-nut) was exported to Bombay, Surat, and Kutch. Sandalwood and black pepper were exported to Bombay.

Local capital was mainly invested in land and money lending, leading to the regional development of banking because the British colonial government did not support industrialisation there. After European missionaries arrived in the early 19th century, educational institutions and modern industries modelled on European ones were developed in the region. The opening of the Lutheran Swiss Basel Mission in 1834 was an important step towards industrialisation. Missionaries set up printing presses, textile mills and factories that made Mangalore tiles. When Canara (part of the Madras Presidency until this time) was split into North Canara and South Canara in 1859, Mangalore became the headquarters of South Canara, which remained under Madras Presidency while in 1862, North Canara was transferred to the Bombay Presidency.

Later modern and contemporary history

On 23 May 1866, a municipal council for Mangalore with responsibility for civic amenities and urban planning was mandated by the Madras Town Improvement Act (1865). The Italian Jesuits who arrived in the city in 1878, played an important role in the city's education, economy, health, and social welfare. Mangalore was linked to the Southern Railway in 1907 and the subsequent proliferation of motor vehicles in India further increased trade and communication between the city and the rest of the country. Mangalore was a major source of educated workers to Bombay, Bangalore, and the Middle East by the early 20th century.

The States Reorganisation Act (1956) led to Mangalore being incorporated into the newly created Mysore State, which was later renamed Karnataka. Mangalore is the seventh-largest port of India, giving the state access to the Arabian Sea coastline. Between 1970 and 1980, Mangalore experienced significant growth with the opening of New Mangalore Port in 1974 and commissioning of Mangalore Chemicals & Fertilizers Limited in 1976. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw Mangalore develop as a commercial and petrochemical hub.

Geography

Mangalore is located on the western coast of India at in Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka state. It has an average elevation of above mean sea level. The city is the administrative headquarters of Dakshina Kannada district and is the state's largest coastal urban centre.

Mangalore is bounded by the Arabian Sea to its west and by the Western Ghats to its east. As a municipal entity the city spans . The Netravati and Gurupura rivers encircle the city; the Gurupura flows around the north and the Netravati flows around the south of the city. The rivers form an estuary in the south-western region of the city, from where they flow into the Arabian Sea. Coconut, palm, and ashoka trees comprise the primary vegetation of the city.

The city's topography consists of a plain that stretches up to from the coast and undulating, hilly terrain towards the east near the Western Ghats. The local geology is characterised by hard laterite in hilly tracts and sandy soil along the seashore. The Geological Survey of India has identified Mangalore as a moderately earthquake-prone urban centre and categorised the city in the Seismic III Zone.

Climate

Under the Köppen climate classification, Mangalore has a tropical monsoon climate and is under the direct influence of the Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon. It receives about 95 percent of its total annual rainfall between May to September but remains extremely dry from December to March. Humidity is approximately 75 percent on average and peaks during June, July and August. The maximum average humidity is 93 percent in July and average minimum humidity is 56 percent in January. Mangalore experiences moderate to gusty winds during day time and gentle winds at night. The driest and least humid months are from December to February. During this time of year temperatures during the day stay below and drop to about at night. The lowest temperature recorded at Panambur is on 8 January 1992 and at Bajpe it is on 19 November 1974. According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), the temperature in Mangalore has never reached . The summer gives way to the monsoon season, when the city experiences the highest precipitation of all urban centres in India due to the influence of the Western Ghats. The rains subside in September but there is occasional rainfall in October. The highest rainfall recorded in a 24-hour period is on 22 June 2003. In 1994, Mangalore recorded its highest annual rainfall at .

Economy

Industrial, commercial, agricultural processing, and port-related activities comprise this city's economy. The New Mangalore Port is India's seventh-largest container port. It handles 75 percent of India's coffee exports and the bulk of its cashew nuts. The Mangalore Customs Commissionerate collected a revenue of during 2012–13 and . During 2012–13, MRPL and MCF contributed and , respectively, to the state's revenue. Dakshina Kannada district has the highest percentage of workers employed in industry and the second-highest industry-to-district GDP ratio in Karnataka. Imports through New Mangalore port include crude oil, edible oil, liquefied petroleum gas, and timber.

The city's major chemical industries include BASF, Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (MRPL), Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilizers (MCF), Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Ltd. (KIOCL), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL), Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL), Total Oil India Limited, and Hindustan Unilever. The Indian government has built 5.33 million tons of strategic crude oil storage at Mangalore and Padur to ensure energy security. Out of the 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) storage, 1.5 MMT is stored at Mangalore. Bharati Shipyard Ltd (BSL) (now known as Bharati Defence and Infrastructure Limited) has established a shipbuilding site near Tannirbavi in Mangalore.

Major information technology (IT) and outsourcing companies like Infosys, Cognizant, and have their offices at Mangalore. Mphasis' Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) has a branch in this city. IT parks Export Promotion Investment Park (EPIP) at Ganjimutt and Special Economic Zone (SEZ) near Mangalore University have been constructed. An IT park called Soorya Infratech park is situated in Mudipu. Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) has planned to invest and set up its office at Karnad near Mangalore. KEONICS has planned to build an IT park at Derebail in Mangalore, similar to Electronic City, spanning an area of 100 acres.

Centre for Entrepreneurship Opportunities and Learning (CEOL) is a startup incubation centre situated in the city. Corporation Bank, Canara Bank, and Vijaya Bank were the three nationalised banks established in Mangalore during the first half of the 20th century. Mangalore is the headquarters of Corporation Bank and Karnataka Bank. The Mangalore Catholic Co-operative Bank (MCC Bank) Ltd., Mangalore Cooperative Town Bank Ltd., and SCDCC Bank were the scheduled banks established in Mangalore.

Syngene International which is a contract research arm of Biocon, has set up its manufacturing plant at Mangalore. Old Mangalore Port is a fishing port located at Bunder, Mangalore, where a large number of mechanised boats anchor. The traffic at this port was 122,000 tonnes during the years 2003–04. New Mangalore Port handled over 100,000  Twenty-foot equivalent units of containers during the years 2017–18. Fishing is a traditional occupation and the products are sold in the surrounding regions. Mangalorean firms have a major presence in the tile, beedi, coffee and cashew nut industries although the tile industry has declined because concrete is preferred in modern construction. The Albuquerque tile factory in Mangalore is one of India's oldest red-roof-tile manufacturing factories. The city's suburb Ullal produces hosiery and coir yarns while beedi rolling is an important source of revenue to many of the city's residents.

Demographics

According to the 2011 Indian census, the population of Mangalore city was 484,785, and the metropolitan area had a population of 619,664. The male literacy rate was 96.49 percent and the female literacy rate was 91.63 percent. About 8.5 percent of the population was under the age of six years. The death rate and Infant mortality rate were at 3.7 percent and 1.2 percent respectively. About 7726 people lived in slums in Mangalore city which was 1.55 percent of the total population. The Human Development Index (HDI) of Mangalore city was 0.83 .

Religions

Hinduism is the largest religion in Mangalore, and Devadiga, Mogaveera, Billavas, Ganigas, Bunts, Vishwakarma, Padmashali, Brahmins, and Daivadnyas are the major communities among Hindus. Christians form a sizeable section of Mangalorean society; Mangalorean Catholics comprise the city's largest Christian community. Protestants in Mangalore typically speak Tulu and Kannada. Anglo-Indians were also part of the Mangalorean Christian Community. Mangalore has one of the highest percentage of Muslims in Karnataka cities. Most Muslims in Mangalore are Bearys who speak the Beary language. Most of them follow the Shafi'i school of ''Fiqh'' (Islamic Jurisprudence). Mangalore also has a small group of Urdu