Lycaenidae
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Lycaenidae is the second-largest
family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
of butterflies (behind
Nymphalidae The Nymphalidae are the largest family of butterflies, with more than 6,000 species distributed throughout most of the world. Belonging to the superfamily Papilionoidea, they are usually medium-sized to large butterflies. Most species have a red ...
, brush-footed butterflies), with over 6,000 species worldwide, whose members are also called gossamer-winged butterflies. They constitute about 30% of the known butterfly species. The family comprises seven subfamilies, including the blues (
Polyommatinae Polyommatinae, the blues, are a diverse subfamily of gossamer-winged butterflies (family Lycaenidae). This subfamily was long used to assign taxa In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more ...
), the coppers (
Lycaeninae Lycaeninae, the coppers, are a subfamily of the gossamer-winged butterflies (Lycaenidae). The relationships of the Lycaenidae are not fully resolved. Sometimes the Polyommatinae and Theclinae are included in the Lycaeninae; in particular the The ...
), the hairstreaks (
Theclinae The subfamily Theclinae is a group of butterflies, often referred to as hairstreaks, with some species instead known as elfins or by other names. The group is part of the family Lycaenidae, the "gossamer-winged butterflies". There are many tropi ...
), and the harvesters (
Miletinae Miletinae is a subfamily of the family Lycaenidae of butterflies, commonly called harvesters and woolly legs, and virtually unique among butterflies in having predatory larvae. Miletinae are entirely aphytophagous (do not feed on plants). The eco ...
).


Description, food, and life cycle

Adults are small, under 5 cm usually, and brightly coloured, sometimes with a metallic gloss. Larvae are often flattened rather than cylindrical, with glands that may produce secretions that attract and subdue
ants Ants are Eusociality, eusocial insects of the Family (biology), family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the Taxonomy (biology), order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from Vespoidea, vespoid wasp ancestors in the Creta ...
. Their cuticles tend to be thickened. Some larvae are capable of producing vibrations and low sounds that are transmitted through the substrates they inhabit. They use these sounds to communicate with ants.Pierce, N. E.; Braby, M. F.; Heath, A.; Lohman, D. J.; Mathew, J.; Rand, D. B. & Travassos, M. A. (2002)
"The ecology and evolution of ant association in the Lycaenidae (Lepidoptera)"
''Annual Review of Entomology''. 47: 733-771.
Adult individuals often have hairy antenna-like tails complete with black and white annulated (ringed) appearance. Many species also have a spot at the base of the tail and some turn around upon landing to confuse potential predators from recognizing the true head orientation. This causes predators to approach from the true head end resulting in early visual detection or to attack the false head ending up with a beak of dusty scales. Lycaenids are diverse in their food habits and apart from
phytophagy A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpar ...
, some of them are
entomophagous Entomophagy (, from Greek ἔντομον ', 'insect', and φαγεῖν ', 'to eat') is the practice of eating insects. An alternative term is insectivory. Terms for organisms that practice entomophagy are ''entomophage'' and ''insectivore' ...
, feeding on
aphids Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A t ...
,
scale insects Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than t ...
, and ant larvae. Some lycaenids even exploit their association with ants by inducing ants to feed them by regurgitation, a process called
trophallaxis Trophallaxis () is the transfer of food or other fluids among members of a community through mouth-to-mouth ( stomodeal) or anus-to-mouth ( proctodeal) feeding. Along with nutrients, trophallaxis can involve the transfer of molecules such as pher ...
. Not all lycaenid butterflies need ants, but about 75% of species associate with ants, a relationship called
myrmecophily Myrmecophily ( , ) is the term applied to positive interspecies associations between ants and a variety of other organisms, such as plants, other arthropods, and fungi. Myrmecophily refers to mutualistic associations with ants, though in its m ...
. These associations can be mutualistic, parasitic, or predatory depending on the species. In some species, larvae are attended and protected by ants while feeding on the host plant, and the ants receive sugar-rich honeydew from them, throughout the larval life, and in some species during the pupal stage. In other species, only the first few
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ...
s are spent on the plant, and the remainder of the larval lifespan is spent as a predator within the ant nest. It becomes a parasite, feeding on ant regurgitations, or a predator on the ant larvae. The caterpillars pupate inside the ants' nest and the ants continue to look after the pupae. Just before the adults emerge, the wings of the butterfly inside the pupal case detach from it, and the pupa becomes silvery. The adult butterfly emerges from the pupa after three to four weeks, still inside the ant nest. The butterfly must crawl out of the ant nest before it can expand its wings. Several evolutionary adaptations enable these associations, including small glands on the skin of the caterpillars called "pore cupola organs". Caterpillars of many species have a gland on the seventh abdominal segment that produces honeydew and is called the "dorsal nectary gland" (also called "Newcomer's gland"). An eversible organ called the "tentacular organ" is present on the eighth abdominal segment and this is cylindrical and topped with a ring of spikes and emits chemical signals which are believed to help in communicating with ants.


Subfamilies

Many taxonomists only include the
Lycaeninae Lycaeninae, the coppers, are a subfamily of the gossamer-winged butterflies (Lycaenidae). The relationships of the Lycaenidae are not fully resolved. Sometimes the Polyommatinae and Theclinae are included in the Lycaeninae; in particular the The ...
,
Theclinae The subfamily Theclinae is a group of butterflies, often referred to as hairstreaks, with some species instead known as elfins or by other names. The group is part of the family Lycaenidae, the "gossamer-winged butterflies". There are many tropi ...
,
Polyommatinae Polyommatinae, the blues, are a diverse subfamily of gossamer-winged butterflies (family Lycaenidae). This subfamily was long used to assign taxa In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more ...
,
Poritiinae Poritiinae is a subfamily of butterflies, the larvae of which are unusual for feeding on algae and foliate lichen. Systematics * Tribe Poritiini - Oriental ** '' Cyaniriodes'' de Nicéville, 1890 (sometimes placed in Lycaeninae) ** '' Poris ...
,
Miletinae Miletinae is a subfamily of the family Lycaenidae of butterflies, commonly called harvesters and woolly legs, and virtually unique among butterflies in having predatory larvae. Miletinae are entirely aphytophagous (do not feed on plants). The eco ...
, and
Curetinae ''Curetis'', the sunbeams, is a genus of gossamer-winged butterflies (Lycaenidae) from Southeast Asia. They are presently the only genus in the subfamily Curetinae. Selected species * '' Curetis acuta'' - angled sunbeam ** ''Curetis acuta formo ...
under the Lycaenidae.Brower, Andrew V. Z. (2008)
"Lycaenidae [Leach] 1815"
Version 25 April 2008 (under construction). ''The Tree of Life Web Project''.
Ackery, P. R.; de Jong, R. & Vane-Wright, R. I. (1999). "The butterflies: Hedyloidea, Hesperioidea, and Papilionoidea". Pages 264-300 in: ''Lepidoptera: Moths and Butterflies. 1. Evolution, Systematics, and Biogeography. Handbook of Zoology'' Vol. IV, Part 35. N. P. Kristensen, ed. De Gruyter, Berlin and New York. The Aphnaeinae, which used to be a tribe (Aphnaeini) within the Theclinae, were recently given subfamily rank too.Boyle, J. H.; Kaliszewska, Z. A.; Espeland, M.; Suderman, T. R.; Fleming, J.; Heath, A. & Pierce, N. E. (2015). "Phylogeny of the Aphnaeinae: Myrmecophilous African butterflies with carnivorous and herbivorous life histories". ''Systematic Entomology''. 40 (1): 169–182. *
Curetinae ''Curetis'', the sunbeams, is a genus of gossamer-winged butterflies (Lycaenidae) from Southeast Asia. They are presently the only genus in the subfamily Curetinae. Selected species * '' Curetis acuta'' - angled sunbeam ** ''Curetis acuta formo ...
– sunbeams (Oriental or Palaearctic). Selected species: ** ''
Curetis thetis ''Curetis thetis'', the Indian sunbeam, Retrieved April 20, 2018.Markku Savela's website on Lepidopterat Markku Savela's website on Lepidoptera is a species of lycaenid or blue butterfly found in Indomalayan realm. Distribution The butterfly o ...
'' – Indian sunbeam *
Miletinae Miletinae is a subfamily of the family Lycaenidae of butterflies, commonly called harvesters and woolly legs, and virtually unique among butterflies in having predatory larvae. Miletinae are entirely aphytophagous (do not feed on plants). The eco ...
– harvesters (mostly African, or Oriental, one Nearctic), probably all feed on aphids or their secretions. Selected species: ** ''
Liphyra brassolis ''Liphyra brassolis'', the moth butterfly, is a butterfly found in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia that belongs to the lycaenid family. The larvae are predatory and feed on ant larvae. This is one of the largest species of lycaenid but ...
'' – moth butterfly (largest lycaenid) *
Poritiinae Poritiinae is a subfamily of butterflies, the larvae of which are unusual for feeding on algae and foliate lichen. Systematics * Tribe Poritiini - Oriental ** '' Cyaniriodes'' de Nicéville, 1890 (sometimes placed in Lycaeninae) ** '' Poris ...
(Oriental and Afrotropical) * Aphnaeinae (Afrotropical and Oriental) *
Theclinae The subfamily Theclinae is a group of butterflies, often referred to as hairstreaks, with some species instead known as elfins or by other names. The group is part of the family Lycaenidae, the "gossamer-winged butterflies". There are many tropi ...
– hairstreaks (usually tailed) and elfins (not tailed) (global). Selected species: ** ''
Arhopala ''Arhopala'' is a very large genus of gossamer-winged butterflies (Lycaenidae). They are the type genus of the tribe Arhopalini. In the relatively wide circumscription used here, it contains over 200 species collectively known as oakblues. The ...
'' – oakblues ** '' Atlides halesus'' – great purple hairstreak ** ''
Eumaeus atala ''Eumaeus atala'', also known as the Atala butterfly or coontie hairstreak, is a small colorful butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in southeastern Florida (including the Florida Keys) in the United States, and the Bahamas, Cuba, and ...
'' – Atala ** ''
Satyrium pruni The black hairstreak (''Satyrium pruni'') is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. Distribution The butterfly is native to Europe, from Scandinavia to Ukraine, and is found as far east as Mongolia, Korea and Japan. It is considered by IUCN to b ...
'' – black hairstreak *
Lycaeninae Lycaeninae, the coppers, are a subfamily of the gossamer-winged butterflies (Lycaenidae). The relationships of the Lycaenidae are not fully resolved. Sometimes the Polyommatinae and Theclinae are included in the Lycaeninae; in particular the The ...
– coppers (Holarctic). Selected species: ** '' Iophanus pyrrhias'' – Guatemalan copper ** ''
Lycaena boldenarum ''Lycaena boldenarum'', the boulder copper, is a species of butterfly which is endemic to New Zealand, it is found on both North Island and South Island in a wide variety of open habitats including grassland, shingle and sand dunes. They are n ...
'' – boulder copper ** ''
Lycaena epixanthe ''Lycaena epixanthe'', the bog copper or cranberry-bog copper, is a North American butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. Adults like to sip drops of dew clinging to leaves and almost exclusively nectar on their host plant, cranberries. Because o ...
'' – bog copper ** ''
Lycaena rauparaha ''Lycaena rauparaha'', Rauparaha's copper, Fereday’s copper or mokarakare is a species of butterfly endemic to New Zealand. It acquired its English common name because it occurred in the same coastal areas as the rangatira (chief) and war lead ...
'' – Rauparaha's copper ** '' Lycaena dispar'' – large copper ** ''
Lycaena phlaeas ''Lycaena phlaeas'', the small copper, American copper, or common copper, is a butterfly of the Lycaenids or gossamer-winged butterfly family. According to Guppy and Shepard (2001), its specific name ''phlaeas'' is said to be derived either ...
'' – small copper ** ''
Lycaena heteronea The blue copper, also known as ''Lycaena heteronea'', is an American butterfly that belongs to the gossamer-winged family. The butterfly is named so because of the bright blue hue of the upper side of the males' wings. Females are brown on thei ...
'' – blue copper *
Polyommatinae Polyommatinae, the blues, are a diverse subfamily of gossamer-winged butterflies (family Lycaenidae). This subfamily was long used to assign taxa In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more ...
– blues (global). Selected species: ** ''
Celastrina ladon ''Celastrina ladon'', the spring azure or echo blue, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in North America from Alaska and Canada south of the tundra, through most of the United States except the Texas coast, southern plain and ...
'' – spring azure ** '' Chilades'' – jewel blues ** ''
Cupido comyntas The eastern tailed-blue or eastern tailed blue (''Cupido comyntas''), also known as ''Everes comyntas'',Cupido minimus The small blue (''Cupido minimus'') is a Palearctic butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. Despite its common name, it is not particularly blue. The male has some bluish suffusion at the base of its upper wings but is mostly dark brown like the fe ...
'' – small blue ** ''
Cyaniris semiargus ''Cyaniris semiargus'', the Mazarine blue, is a Palearctic butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. Subspecies Subspecies include: * ''Cyaniris semiargus semiargus'' (Europe, Caucasus, Siberia, Russian Far East) * ''Cyaniris semiargus altaiana'' (, ...
'' – mazarine blue ** '' Euphilotes battoides allyni'' – El Segundo blue ** '' Euphilotes pallescens arenamontana'' – Sand Mountain blue ** '' Glaucopsyche lygdamus'' – silvery blue ** '' Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis'' – Palos Verdes blue ** '' Glaucopsyche xerces'' (extinct) – Xerces blue ** ''
Icaricia icarioides fenderi Fender's blue butterfly (''Icaricia icarioides fenderi'') is an endangered subspecies of Boisduval's blue (''Icaricia icarioides)'' endemic to the Willamette Valley of northwestern Oregon, United States. Thpotential rangeof the butterfly extend ...
'' – Fender's blue ** '' Phengaris arion'' – large blue ** ''
Polyommatus icarus The common blue butterfly or European common blue (''Polyommatus icarus'') is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae and subfamily Polyommatinae. The butterfly is found throughout the Palearctic. Butterflies in the Polyommatinae are collectively c ...
'' – common blue ** '' Pseudozizeeria maha'' – pale grass blue ** ''
Plebejus argus The silver-studded blue (''Plebejus argus'') is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It has bright blue wings rimmed in black with white edges and silver spots on its hindwings, lending it the name of the silver-studded blue. ''P. argus'' can be ...
'' – silver-studded blue ** ''
Talicada nyseus ''Talicada nyseus'', the red Pierrot, is a small but striking butterfly found in the Indian subcontinent and South-East Asia belonging to the Lycaenidae, lycaenids, or blues family. The red Pierrots, often found perching on its larva host plant, ...
'' – red Pierrot Some older classifications used to include other subfamilies such as Liphyrinae (now Liphyrini, a tribe within
Miletinae Miletinae is a subfamily of the family Lycaenidae of butterflies, commonly called harvesters and woolly legs, and virtually unique among butterflies in having predatory larvae. Miletinae are entirely aphytophagous (do not feed on plants). The eco ...
), Lipteninae (now Liptenini, a tribe within
Poritiinae Poritiinae is a subfamily of butterflies, the larvae of which are unusual for feeding on algae and foliate lichen. Systematics * Tribe Poritiini - Oriental ** '' Cyaniriodes'' de Nicéville, 1890 (sometimes placed in Lycaeninae) ** '' Poris ...
), or Riodininae (now a separate family:
Riodinidae Riodinidae is the family of metalmark butterflies. The common name "metalmarks" refers to the small, metallic-looking spots commonly found on their wings. The 1532 species are placed in 146 genera. Although mostly Neotropical in distribution, t ...
). The
fossil A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved ...
genus '' Lithodryas'' is usually (but not unequivocally) placed here; ''
Lithopsyche ''Lithopsyche'' is a fossil butterfly known from Oligocene-aged strata of the Isle of Wight, England. The sole specimen is too incomplete to allow a certain assignment of a family, but it was placed on its description as a geometrid and more re ...
'' is sometimes placed here, but sometimes in the Riodininae.


See also

*
List of lycaenid genera The large butterfly family Lycaenidae contains the following genera: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z References {{reflist Natural History Museum Lepidoptera genus database * Lycaenidae Lycaenid ...


References


Further reading

*Bridges, Charles A. (1994)
''Catalogue of the Family-Group, Genus-Group and Species-Group Names of the Riodinidae & Lycaenidae (Lepidoptera) of the World''
Urbana, Ill. * Eliot, J. N. (1973)
"The higher classification of the Lycaenidae (Lepidoptera): a tentative arrangement"
''Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) (Entomology)''. 28: 371–505. * Glassberg, Jeffrey (2001). ''Butterflies Through Binoculars, The West'' * Guppy, Crispin S. & Shepard, Jon H. (2001). ''Butterflies of British Columbia'' * James, David G. and Nunnallee, David (2011). ''Life Histories of Cascadia Butterflies'' * Pelham, Jonathan (2008). ''Catalogue of the Butterflies of the United States and Canada'' * Pyle, Robert Michael (2002). ''The Butterflies of Cascadia''


External links


''Tree of Life Web Project''
*
"Family Lycaenidae"
''Insecta.pro''. * * * *
Royal Museum for Central Africa The Royal Museum for Central Africa or RMCA ( nl, Koninklijk Museum voor Midden-Afrika or KMMA; french: Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale or MRAC; german: Königliches Museum für Zentralafrika or KMZA), also officially known as the AfricaMuse ...
Images of Lycaenida


''Butterflies and Moths of North America''

Butterflies of America
{{Authority control Lycaenidae, Butterfly families Taxa named by William Elford Leach Papilionoidea