]

Found largely in

temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout ...

and

tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...

climates, currently there are more than 112 known species of bioluminescent fungi, all of which are members of the order

Agaricales The fungal order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills) or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of mushrooms. The order has 33 extant families, 413 genera, and over 13,000 described species, alo ...

(

Basidiomycota Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Bas ...

) with one exceptional

ascomycete Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The defi ...

belonging to the order

Xylariales The Xylariales are an order of fungi within the class Sordariomycetes (also known as Pyrenomycetes), subdivision Pezizomycotina, division Ascomycota. It is the only order of the subclass Xylariomycetidae. Xylariales was circumscribed in 1932 by S ...

. All known bioluminescent Agaricales are

mushroom A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans. The standard for the name "mushroom" is ...

-forming, white-spored

agaric An agaric () is a type of fungus fruiting body characterized by the presence of a pileus (cap) that is clearly differentiated from the stipe (stalk), with lamellae (gills) on the underside of the pileus. In the UK, agarics are called "mushroom ...

s that belong to four distinct evolutionary lineages. The Omphalotus lineage (comprising the genera ''

Omphalotus ''Omphalotus'' is a genus of basidiomycete mushroom, in the family Marasmiaceae, formally circumscribed by Victor Fayod in 1889. Members have the traditional cap and stem structure. They are saprobic, and fruit in clumps on the ground, adjac ...

'' and ''

Neonothopanus ''Neonothopanus'' is a genus of three species of fungi in the agaric family Marasmiaceae. The genus was circumscribed in 1999. The type species '' N. nambi'' is found in Australia, South America, Central America, and Malaysia, while '' N.&nb ...

'') contains 12 species, the ''

Armillaria ''Armillaria'' is a genus of fungi that includes the ''Armillaria mellea, A. mellea'' species known as honey fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. It includes about 10 species formerly categorized summarily as ''A. mellea''. ''Armill ...

'' lineage has 10 known species, while the Mycenoid lineage ('' Favolachia,

Mycena ''Mycena'' is a large genus of small saprotrophic mushrooms that are rarely more than a few centimeters in width. They are characterized by a white spore print, a small conical or bell-shaped cap, and a thin fragile stem. Most are gray or bro ...

'', ''

Panellus ''Panellus'' is a genus of more than 50 mushroom species of fungi in the family Mycenaceae as defined molecularly. Prior to molecular analyses the generic name had been used for any white-spored '' pleurotoid'' with amyloid spores. Unrelated but ...

'', '' Prunulus'', '' Roridomyces'') has more than 50 species. The recently discovered Lucentipes lineage contains two species, '' Mycena lucentipes'' and '' Gerronema viridilucens'', which belong to a

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

that has not yet been formally named. ''

Armillaria mellea ''Armillaria mellea'', commonly known as honey fungus, is a basidiomycete fungus in the genus ''Armillaria''. It is a plant pathogen and part of a cryptic species complex of closely related and morphologically similar species. It causes Armill ...

'' is the most widely distributed of the luminescent fungi, found across Asia, Europe, North America, and South Africa. Bioluminescent fungi emit a greenish light at a

wavelength In physics, the wavelength is the spatial period of a periodic wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats. It is the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase on the wave, such as two adjacent crests, tr ...

of 520–530 nm. The light emission is continuous and occurs only in living cells. No correlation of fungal

bioluminescence Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by living organisms. It is a form of chemiluminescence. Bioluminescence occurs widely in marine vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as in some fungi, microorganisms including some b ...

with cell structure has been found. Bioluminescence may occur in both

mycelia Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates in ...

and fruit bodies, as in ''

Panellus stipticus ''Panellus stipticus'', commonly known as the bitter oyster, the astringent panus, the luminescent panellus, or the stiptic fungus, is a species of fungus in the family Mycenaceae, and the type species of the genus '' Panellus''. A common and ...

'' and ''

Omphalotus olearius ''Omphalotus olearius'',Singer R (1948) In: ''Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci.'' 32: 133 ('1946'). commonly known as the jack-o'-lantern mushroom, is a poisonous orange gilled mushroom that to an untrained eye appears similar to some chanterelles. It is n ...

'', or only in mycelia and young

rhizomorph Mycelial cords are linear aggregations of parallel-oriented hyphae. The mature cords are composed of wide, empty vessel hyphae surrounded by narrower sheathing hyphae. Cords may look similar to plant roots, and also frequently have similar function ...

s, as in ''Armillaria mellea''. In '' Roridomyces roridus'' luminescence occurs only in the

spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, ...

s, while in '' Collybia tuberosa'', it is only in the sclerotia. Although the

biochemistry Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology and ...

of fungal bioluminescence has not fully been characterized, the preparation of bioluminescent, cell-free extracts has allowed researchers to characterize the ''

in vitro ''In vitro'' (meaning in glass, or ''in the glass'') studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called " test-tube experiments", these studies in biology a ...

'' requirements of fungal bioluminescence. Experimental data suggest that a two-stage mechanism is required. In the first, a light-emitting substance (called "

luciferin Luciferin (from the Latin ''lucifer'', "light-bearer") is a generic term for the light-emitting compound found in organisms that generate bioluminescence. Luciferins typically undergo an enzyme-catalyzed reaction with molecular oxygen. The resul ...

") is reduced by a soluble

reductase A reductase is an enzyme that catalyzes a reduction reaction. Examples * 5α-Reductase * 5β-Reductase * Dihydrofolate reductase * HMG-CoA reductase * Methemoglobin reductase * Ribonucleotide reductase * Thioredoxin reductase * ''E. coli' ...

enzyme at the expense of

NAD(P)H Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an aden ...

. In the second stage, reduced luciferin is

oxidized Redox (reduction–oxidation, , ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of electrons or a ...

by an insoluble

luciferase Luciferase is a generic term for the class of oxidative enzymes that produce bioluminescence, and is usually distinguished from a photoprotein. The name was first used by Raphaël Dubois who invented the words '' luciferin'' and ''luciferase'' ...

that releases the energy in the form of bluish-green light. Conditions that affect the growth of fungi, such as pH, light and temperature, have been found to influence bioluminescence, suggesting a link between metabolic activity and fungal bioluminescence. All bioluminescent fungi share the same enzymatic mechanism, suggesting that there is a bioluminescent pathway that arose early in the evolution of the mushroom-forming Agaricales. All known luminescent species are

white rot A wood-decay or xylophagous fungus is any species of fungus that digests moist wood, causing it to rot. Some species of wood-decay fungi attack dead wood, such as brown rot, and some, such as ''Armillaria'' (honey fungus), are parasitic and col ...

fungi capable of breaking down

lignin Lignin is a class of complex organic polymers that form key structural materials in the support tissues of most plants. Lignins are particularly important in the formation of cell walls, especially in wood and bark, because they lend rigidity a ...

, found in abundance in wood. Bioluminescence is an oxygen-dependent metabolic process and therefore may provide antioxidant protection against the potentially damaging effects of

reactive oxygen species In chemistry, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly reactive chemicals formed from diatomic oxygen (). Examples of ROS include peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, and alpha-oxygen. The reduction of molecular oxygen () p ...

produced during wood decay. The physiological and ecological function of fungal bioluminescence has not been established with certainty. It has been suggested that in the dark beneath closed tropical forest canopies, bioluminescent fruit bodies may be at an advantage by attracting

grazing In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to roam around and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible (by human gut) cellulose within grass and ot ...

animals (including insects and other arthropods) that could help disperse their spores. Conversely, where

mycelium Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates ...

(and vegetative structures like rhizomorphs and sclerotia) are the bioluminescent tissues, the argument has been made that light emission could deter

. The following list of bioluminescent mushrooms is based on a 2008 literature survey by Dennis Desjardin and colleagues, in addition to accounts of several new species published since then.

Species

' ; Binomial : The

binomial name In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bo ...

of the fungal species, including the author citation—the person who first described the species using an available scientific name, using standardized abbreviations. ; Luminescence : Indicates which form of the fungus—mycelium or fruit body—produces luminescence. ; Distribution : The geographical distribution of the species. AF = Africa; AS = Asia; AU = Australasia; CA = Central America and the Caribbean; EU = Europe; NA = North America; SA = South America. ; References : Literature sources where bioluminescence was reported. Armillaria novae-zelandiae

Notes

References

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MycoBank MycoBank is an online database, documenting new mycological names and combinations, eventually combined with descriptions and illustrations. It is run by the Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute in Utrecht. Each novelty, after being screened ...

. International Mycological Association , access-date=2014-02-22

External links

Glow-in-the-Dark Mushrooms National Geographic

Bioluminescence in the Bush - Glow in the Dark Mushrooms in New Zealand

A Luminous Pursuit
* Bioluminescent fungi, List of

Species

See also

Notes

References

External links