The ''leishu'' () is a genre of

reference books A reference work is a work, such as a paper, book or periodical (or their electronic equivalents), to which one can refer for information. The information is intended to be found quickly when needed. Such works are usually ''referred'' to f ...

historically compiled in China and other East Asian countries. The term is generally translated as "encyclopedia", although the ''leishu'' are quite different from the modern notion of encyclopedia. The ''leishu'' are composed of sometimes lengthy citations from other works, and often contain copies of entire works, not just excerpts. The works are classified by a systematic set of categories, which are further divided into subcategories. ''Leishu'' may be considered anthologies, but are encyclopedic in the sense that they may comprise the entire realm of knowledge at the time of compilation. Approximately 600 ''leishu'' were compiled from the early third century until the eighteenth century, of which 200 have survived. The largest ''leishu'' ever compiled was the 1408 ''

Yongle Encyclopedia The ''Yongle Encyclopedia'' () or ''Yongle Dadian'' () is a largely-lost Chinese ''leishu'' encyclopedia commissioned by the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1403 and completed by 1408. It comprised 22,937 manuscript rolls or chapters, in 1 ...

'', containing 370 million

Chinese characters Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji ...

, and the largest ever printed was the ''

Gujin Tushu Jicheng The ''Gujin Tushu Jicheng'' (), also known as the ''Imperial Encyclopaedia'', is a vast encyclopedic work written in China during the reigns of the Qing dynasty emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. It was begun in 1700 and completed in 1725. The wor ...

'', containing 100 million characters and 852,408 pages.

History

The genre first appeared in the early third century. The earliest known was the ''

Huanglan The ''Huanglan'' or ''Imperial Mirror'' was one of the oldest Chinese encyclopedias or ''leishu'' "classified dictionary". Cao Pi, the first emperor of the Wei, ordered its compilation upon his accession to the throne in 220 and it was completed ...

'' ("Emperor's mirror"). Sponsored by the emperor of

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' < Middle Chinese: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

been lost. However, the term ''leishu'' was not used until the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

(960–1279). In later imperial China dynasties, such as the

Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peop ...

and Qing, emperors sponsored monumental projects to compile all known human knowledge into a single ''leishu'', in which entire works, rather than excerpts, were copied and classified by category. The largest ''leishu'' ever compiled, on the order of the

Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424. Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...

of Ming, was the '' Yongle Dadian'' containing a total of 370 million

. The project involved 2,169 scholars, who worked for four years under general editor Yao Guangxiao. It was completed in 1408, but never printed, as the imperial treasury had run out of money. The ''

Qinding Gujin Tushu Jicheng The ''Gujin Tushu Jicheng'' (), also known as the ''Imperial Encyclopaedia'', is a vast encyclopedic work written in China during the reigns of the Qing dynasty emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. It was begun in 1700 and completed in 1725. The wor ...

'' (Imperially approved synthesis of books and illustrations past and present) is by far the largest ''leishu'' ever printed, containing 100 million characters and 852,408 pages. It was compiled by a team of scholars led by

Chen Menglei Chen Menglei (; 1650-1741) was a Qing dynasty scholar-writer known for being the chief editor, compiler, and author of the Gujin Tushu Jicheng Chinese encyclopedia. In 1670, he became a Jinshi. Chen Menglei conducted research for over 50 years, c ...

, and printed between 1726 and 1728, during the Qing dynasty. The ''riyong leishu'' (encyclopedias for daily use), containing practical information for people who were literate but below the

Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...

elite, were also compiled in the later imperial era. Today, they provide scholars with valuable information on non-elite culture and attitudes. According to Jean-Pierre Diény, the Jiaqing reign (1796–1820) of the Qing dynasty saw the end of the publication of ''leishu''.

In other countries

Other countries in East Asia also adopted the genre of ''leishu''. In 1712, the ''

Sancai Tuhui ''Sancai Tuhui'' (, ), compiled by Wang Qi () and his son Wang Siyi (), is a Chinese ''leishu'' encyclopedia, completed in 1607 and published in 1609 during the late Ming dynasty, featuring illustrations of subjects in the three worlds of heaven ...

'', a richly illustrated ''leishu'' compiled by Ming scholar Wang Qi () in the early 17th century, was printed in Japan as ''

Wakan Sansai Zue The is an illustrated Japanese ''leishu'' encyclopedia published in 1712 in the Edo period. It consists of 105 volumes in 81 books. Its compiler was Terashima or Terajima (), a doctor from Osaka. It describes and illustrates various activiti ...

''. The Japanese version was edited by Terajima Ryōan (), a physician born in

Osaka is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third most populous city in Japan, following Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of ...

Importance

The ''leishu'' have played an important role in the preservation of ancient works, many of which have been lost, only preserved completely or partially as part of a ''leishu'' compilation. The 7th-century ''

Yiwen Leiju The ''Yiwen Leiju'' is a Chinese ''leishu'' encyclopedia completed by Ouyang Xun in 624 under the Tang dynasty, Tang. Its other contributors included Linghu Defen and Chen Shuda. It is divided into 47 sections and many subsections. It covers a ...

'' is especially valuable. It contains excerpts from 1,400 pre-7th century works, 90% of which have been otherwise lost. Even though the ''Yongle Dadian'' is itself largely lost, the remnants still contain 385 complete books that have been otherwise lost. The ''leishu'' also provide a unique view of the transmission of knowledge and education, and an easy way to locate traditional materials on any given subject.

Major compilations

Approximately 600 ''leishu'' were compiled, from the Cao Wei period (early third century) until the 18th century, of which 200 have survived. Among the most important, in chronological order, are: *''

'' (Collection of literature arranged by categories), compiled by

Ouyang Xun Ouyang Xun (; 557–641), courtesy name Xinben (), was a Chinese calligrapher, politician, and writer of the early Tang dynasty. He was born in Hunan, Changsha, to a family of government officials; and died in modern Anhui province. Achievements ...

*'' Beitang Shuchao'' (北堂书钞 ,Excerpts from books in the Northern Hall), compiled by Yu Shinan ca. 630 *'' Chuxue Ji'' (初學記,Writings for elementary instruction), compiled by Xu Jian et al. between 713 and 742 *''

Taiping Yulan The ''Taiping Yulan'', translated as the ''Imperial Reader'' or ''Readings of the Taiping Era'', is a massive Chinese ''leishu'' encyclopedia compiled by a team of scholars from 977 to 983. It was commissioned by the imperial court of the Son ...

'' (''Taiping Imperial Reader''), compiled by Li Fang et al., published 984 *''

Cefu Yuangui ''Cefu Yuangui'' (冊府元龜) is the largest ''leishu'' (encyclopedia) compiled during the Chinese Song Dynasty (AD 960–1279). It was the last of the '' Four Great Books of Song'', the previous three having been published in the 10th cen ...

'' (Outstanding models from the storehouse of literature), compiled by

Wang Qinruo Wang Qinruo ( 962 – 22 December 1025), courtesy name Dingguo, was an official in China's Northern Song Dynasty. He was the chancellor from 1017 to 1019 during Emperor Zhenzong's reign and from 1023 to 1025 during Emperor Renzong's reign. Wang ...

et al., completed in 1013 *'' Yuhai'' (玉海,Ocean of jade), compiled by Wang Yinglin 1330–40 *'' Yongle Dadian'', completed 1408, the largest ''leishu'' ever compiled *''

'', 1726–28, the largest ''leishu'' ever printed

Notes

References

Citations

Cited works

* * * {{Authority control Anthologies Chinese classic texts Chinese encyclopedias Reference works