Laguerre polynomials

In mathematics, the Laguerre polynomials, named after Edmond Laguerre (1834–1886), are solutions of Laguerre's equation:
$xy'' + (1 - x)y' + ny = 0$
which is a second-order linear differential equation. This equation has nonsingular solutions only if is a non-negative integer.

Sometimes the name Laguerre polynomials is used for solutions of
$xy'' + (\alpha + 1 - x)y' + ny = 0~.$
where is still a non-negative integer.
Then they are also named generalized Laguerre polynomials, as will be done here (alternatively associated Laguerre polynomials or, rarely, Sonine polynomials, after their inventor Nikolay Yakovlevich Sonin).

More generally, a Laguerre function is a solution when is not necessarily a non-negative integer.

The Laguerre polynomials are also used for Gaussian quadrature to numerically compute integrals of the form
$\int_0^\infty f(x) e^ \, dx.$

These polynomials, usually denoted , , …, are a polynomial sequence which may be defined by the Rodrigues formula#Rodrigues formula, Rodrigues formula,

$L_n(x)=\frac\frac\left(e^ x^n\right) =\frac \left( \frac -1 \right)^n x^n,$
reducing to the closed form of a following section.

They are orthogonal polynomials with respect to an inner product
$\langle f,g \rangle = \int_0^\infty f(x) g(x) e^\,dx.$

The sequence of Laguerre polynomials is a Sheffer sequence,
$\frac L_n = \left ( \frac - 1 \right ) L_.$

The rook polynomials in combinatorics are more or less the same as Laguerre polynomials, up to elementary changes of variables. Further see the Tricomi–Carlitz polynomials.

The Laguerre polynomials arise in quantum mechanics, in the radial part of the solution of the Schrödinger equation for a one-electron atom. They also describe the static Wigner functions of oscillator systems in Phase space formulation#Simple harmonic oscillator, quantum mechanics in phase space. They further enter in the quantum mechanics of the Morse potential and of the Quantum harmonic oscillator#Example: 3D isotropic harmonic oscillator, 3D isotropic harmonic oscillator.

Physicists sometimes use a definition for the Laguerre polynomials that is larger by a factor of ''n''! than the definition used here. (Likewise, some physicists may use somewhat different definitions of the so-called associated Laguerre polynomials.)

The first few polynomials

These are the first few Laguerre polynomials:

Recursive definition, closed form, and generating function

One can also define the Laguerre polynomials recursively, defining the first two polynomials as
$L_0(x) = 1$
$L_1(x) = 1 - x$
and then using the following Orthogonal polynomials#Recurrence relations, recurrence relation for any :
$L_(x) = \frac.$
Furthermore,
$x L'_n(x) = nL_n (x) - nL_(x).$

In solution of some boundary value problems, the characteristic values can be useful:
$L_(0) = 1, L_'(0) = -k.$

The closed form is
$L_n(x)=\sum_^n \binom\frac x^k .$

The generating function for them likewise follows,
$\sum_^\infty t^n L_n(x)= \frac e^.$

Polynomials of negative index can be expressed using the ones with positive index:
$L_(x)=e^xL_(-x).$

Relation to binary functions

There is a method to set Laguerre polynomials using functions which is related to binary expansion of $n$:
$L_n(x)=\fracb(\frac, x).$
Here
$b(n, x) = \fracb(\frac, x) + (-1)^nb(\left\lfloor\frac\right\rfloor, x).$
with $b(0,x)=1$.

Also
$f(2n+1)=0, f(2n)=f(n)+1.$
Here $f(n)$ is and $b(n)$ is a generalisation of .

Generalized Laguerre polynomials

For arbitrary real α the polynomial solutions of the differential equation
$x\,y'' + \left(\alpha +1 - x\right) y' + n\,y = 0$
are called generalized Laguerre polynomials, or associated Laguerre polynomials.

One can also define the generalized Laguerre polynomials recursively, defining the first two polynomials as
$L^_0(x) = 1$
$L^_1(x) = 1 + \alpha - x$

and then using the following Orthogonal polynomials#Recurrence relations, recurrence relation for any :
$L^_(x) = \frac.$

The simple Laguerre polynomials are the special case of the generalized Laguerre polynomials:
$L^_n(x) = L_n(x).$

The Rodrigues formula for them is
$L_n^(x) = \left(e^ x^\right) = \frac\left( \frac-1\right)^nx^.$

The generating function for them is
$\sum_^\infty t^n L^_n(x)= \frac e^.$

Explicit examples and properties of the generalized Laguerre polynomials

* Laguerre functions are defined by confluent hypergeometric functions and Kummer's transformation as $L_n^(x) := M(-n,\alpha+1,x).$ where $$ is a generalized binomial coefficient. When is an integer the function reduces to a polynomial of degree . It has the alternative expression $L_n^(x)= \frac U(-n,\alpha+1,x)$ in terms of confluent hypergeometric function, Kummer's function of the second kind.
* The closed form for these generalized Laguerre polynomials of degree is $L_n^ (x) = \sum_^n (-1)^i \frac$ derived by applying Leibniz rule (generalized product rule), Leibniz's theorem for differentiation of a product to Rodrigues' formula.
* Laguerre polynomials have a differential operator representation, much like the closely related Hermite polynomials. Namely, let $D = \frac$ and consider the differential operator $M=qxD^2+(\alpha+1)D$. Then $\exp(-tM)x^n=(-1)^nq^nt^nn!L^_n\left(\frac\right)$.
* The first few generalized Laguerre polynomials are: $\begin L_0^(x) &= 1 \\ L_1^(x) &= -x + (\alpha +1) \\ L_2^(x) &= \frac - (\alpha + 2)x + \frac \\ L_3^(x) &= \frac + \frac -\frac +\frac \end$
* The coefficient of the leading term is ;
* The constant term, which is the value at 0, is $L_n^(0) = = \frac;$

* If is non-negative, then ''L''_''n''^(''α'') has ''n'' real number, real, strictly positive Root of a function, roots (notice that $\left((-1)^ L_^\right)_^n$ is a Sturm chain), which are all in the Interval (mathematics), interval $\left( 0, n+\alpha+ (n-1) \sqrt \, \right].$
* The polynomials' asymptotic behaviour for large , but fixed and , is given by $\begin & L_n^(x) = \frac \frac \sin\left(2 \sqrt- \frac\left(\alpha-\frac \right) \right)+O\left(n^\right), \\[6pt] & L_n^(-x) = \frac \frac e^ \cdot\left(1+O\left(\frac\right)\right), \end$ and summarizing by $\frac\approx e^ \cdot \frac,$ where $J_\alpha$ is the Bessel function#Asymptotic forms, Bessel function.

As a contour integral

Given the generating function specified above, the polynomials may be expressed in terms of a contour integral
$L_n^(x)=\frac\oint_C\frac \; dt,$
where the contour circles the origin once in a counterclockwise direction without enclosing the essential singularity at 1

Recurrence relations

The addition formula for Laguerre polynomials:
$L_n^(x+y)= \sum_^n L_i^(x) L_^(y) .$

Laguerre's polynomials satisfy the recurrence relations
$L_n^(x)= \sum_^n L_^(y)\frac,$
in particular
$L_n^(x)= \sum_^n L_i^(x)$
and
$L_n^(x)= \sum_^n L_i^(x),$
or
$L_n^(x)=\sum_^n L_i^(x);$
moreover
$\begin L_n^(x)- \sum_^ (-1)^j \frac&= (-1)^\Delta\frac \sum_^ \fracL_i^(x)\\[6pt] &=(-1)^\Delta\frac \sum_^ \fracL_i^(x) \end$

They can be used to derive the four 3-point-rules
$\begin L_n^(x) &= L_n^(x) - L_^(x) = \sum_^k L_^(x), \\[10pt] n L_n^(x) &= (n + \alpha )L_^(x) - x L_^(x), \\[10pt] & \text \\ \fracL_n^(x) &= \sum_^k (-1)^i L_^(x), \\[10pt] n L_n^(x) &= (n-x) L_^(x) + (n+\alpha)L_^(x) \\[10pt] x L_n^(x) &= (n+\alpha)L_^(x)-(n-x)L_n^(x); \end$

combined they give this additional, useful recurrence relations$\begin L_n^(x)&= \left(2+\fracn \right)L_^(x)- \left(1+\fracn \right)L_^(x)\\[10pt] &= \fracn L_^(x)- \frac x n L_^(x) \end$

Since $L_n^(x)$ is a monic polynomial of degree $n$ in $\alpha$,
there is the partial fraction decomposition
$\begin \frac &= 1- \sum_^n (-1)^j \frac L_n^(x) \\ &= 1- \sum_^n \frac\,\,\frac \\ &= 1-x \sum_^n \frac. \end$
The second equality follows by the following identity, valid for integer ''i'' and and immediate from the expression of $L_n^(x)$ in terms of Charlier polynomials:
$\frac L_n^(x) = \frac L_i^(x).$
For the third equality apply the fourth and fifth identities of this section.

Derivatives of generalized Laguerre polynomials

Differentiating the power series representation of a generalized Laguerre polynomial times leads to
$\frac L_n^ (x) = \begin (-1)^k L_^(x) & \text k\le n, \\ 0 & \text \end$

This points to a special case () of the formula above: for integer the generalized polynomial may be written
$L_n^(x)=(-1)^k\frac,$
the shift by sometimes causing confusion with the usual parenthesis notation for a derivative.

Moreover, the following equation holds:
$\frac \frac x^\alpha L_n^ (x) = x^ L_n^(x),$
which generalizes with Antiderivative#Techniques of integration, Cauchy's formula to
$L_n^(x) = (\alpha'-\alpha) \int_0^x \frac L_n^(t)\,dt.$

The derivative with respect to the second variable has the form,
$\fracL_n^(x)= \sum_^ \frac.$
This is evident from the contour integral representation below.

The generalized Laguerre polynomials obey the differential equation
$x L_n^(x) + (\alpha+1-x)L_n^(x) + n L_n^(x)=0,$
which may be compared with the equation obeyed by the ''k''th derivative of the ordinary Laguerre polynomial,

$x L_n^(x) + (k+1-x)L_n^(x) + (n-k) L_n^(x)=0,$
where $L_n^(x)\equiv\frac$ for this equation only.

In Sturm–Liouville theory, Sturm–Liouville form the differential equation is

$-\left(x^ e^\cdot L_n^(x)^\prime\right)' = n\cdot x^\alpha e^\cdot L_n^(x),$

which shows that is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue .

Orthogonality

The generalized Laguerre polynomials are orthogonal over with respect to the measure with weighting function :

$\int_0^\infty x^\alpha e^ L_n^(x)L_m^(x)dx=\frac \delta_,$

which follows from

$\int_0^\infty x^ e^ L_n^(x)dx= \Gamma(\alpha').$

If $\Gamma(x,\alpha+1,1)$ denotes the gamma distribution then the orthogonality relation can be written as

$\int_0^ L_n^(x)L_m^(x)\Gamma(x,\alpha+1,1) dx=\delta_,$

The associated, symmetric kernel polynomial has the representations (Christoffel–Darboux formula)

$\begin K_n^(x,y) &:= \frac \sum_^n \frac\\[4pt] & =\frac \frac \\[4pt] &= \frac\sum_^n \frac \frac; \end$

recursively

$K_n^(x,y)=\frac K_^(x,y)+ \frac \frac.$

Moreover,

$y^\alpha e^ K_n^(\cdot, y) \to \delta(y- \cdot).$

Turán's inequalities can be derived here, which is
$L_n^(x)^2- L_^(x) L_^(x)= \sum_^ \frac L_k^(x)^2>0.$

The following integral is needed in the quantum mechanics, quantum mechanical treatment of the Hydrogen atom#Wavefunction, hydrogen atom,

$\int_0^x^ e^ \left[L_n^ (x)\right]^2 dx= \frac(2n+\alpha+1).$

Series expansions

Let a function have the (formal) series expansion
$f(x)= \sum_^\infty f_i^ L_i^(x).$

Then
$f_i^=\int_0^\infty \frac \cdot \frac \cdot f(x) \,dx .$

The series converges in the associated Hilbert space if and only if

$\, f \, _^2 := \int_0^\infty \frac , f(x), ^2 \, dx = \sum_^\infty , f_i^, ^2 < \infty.$

Further examples of expansions

Monomials are represented as
$\frac= \sum_^n (-1)^i L_i^(x),$
while binomial coefficient, binomials have the parametrization
$= \sum_^n \frac L_^(\alpha).$

This leads directly to
$e^= \sum_^\infty \frac L_i^(x) \qquad \text \Re(\gamma) > -\tfrac$
for the exponential function. The incomplete gamma function has the representation
$\Gamma(\alpha,x)=x^\alpha e^ \sum_^\infty \frac \qquad \left(\Re(\alpha)>-1 , x > 0\right).$

In quantum mechanics

In quantum mechanics the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen-like atom is exactly solvable by separation of variables in spherical coordinates. The radial part of the wave function is a (generalized) Laguerre polynomial.

Vibronic coupling, Vibronic transitions in the Franck-Condon approximation can also be described using Laguerre polynomials.

Multiplication theorems

Arthur Erdélyi, Erdélyi gives the following two multiplication theorems

$\begin & t^ e^ L_n^(z t)=\sum_^\infty \left(1-\frac 1 t\right)^ L_k^(z), \\[6pt] & e^ L_n^(z t)=\sum_^\infty \fracL_n^(z). \end$

Relation to Hermite polynomials

The generalized Laguerre polynomials are related to the Hermite polynomials:
$\begin H_(x) &= (-1)^n 2^ n! L_n^ (x^2) \\[4pt] H_(x) &= (-1)^n 2^ n! x L_n^ (x^2) \end$
where the are the Hermite polynomials based on the weighting function , the so-called "physicist's version."

Because of this, the generalized Laguerre polynomials arise in the treatment of the quantum harmonic oscillator.

Relation to hypergeometric functions

The Laguerre polynomials may be defined in terms of hypergeometric functions, specifically the confluent hypergeometric functions, as
$L^_n(x) = M(-n,\alpha+1,x) =\frac \,_1F_1(-n,\alpha+1,x)$
where $(a)_n$ is the Pochhammer symbol (which in this case represents the rising factorial).

Hardy–Hille formula

The generalized Laguerre polynomials satisfy the Hardy–Hille formula
$\sum_^\infty \fracL_n^(x)L_n^(y)t^n=\frace^\,_0F_1\left(;\alpha + 1;\frac\right),$
where the series on the left converges for $\alpha>-1$ and $, t, <1$. Using the identity
$\,_0F_1(;\alpha + 1;z)=\,\Gamma(\alpha + 1) z^ I_\alpha\left(2\sqrt\right),$
(see Generalized hypergeometric function#The series 0F1, generalized hypergeometric function), this can also be written as
$\sum_^\infty \fracL_n^(x)L_n^(y) t^n = \frace^ I_\alpha \left(\frac\right).$
This formula is a generalization of the Mehler kernel for Hermite polynomials, which can be recovered from it by using the relations between Laguerre and Hermite polynomials given above.

Physicist Scaling Convention

The generalized Laguerre polynomials are used to describe the quantum wavefunction for hydrogen atom orbitals. In the introductory literature on this topic, a different scaling is used for the generalized Laguerre polynomials than the scaling presented in this article. In the convention taken here, the generalized Laguerre polynomials can be expressed as

$L_n^(x) = \frac \,_1F_1(-n; \alpha + 1; x),$

where $\,_1F_1(a;b;x)$ is the confluent hypergeometric function.
In the physicist literature, such as , the generalized Laguerre polynomials are instead defined as

$\bar_n^(x) = \frac \,_1F_1(-n; \alpha + 1; x).$

The physicist version is related to the standard version by

$\bar_n^(x) = (n+\alpha)! L_n^(x).$

There is yet another convention in use, though less frequently, in the physics literature. Under this convention the Laguerre polynomials are given by

$\tilde_n^(x) = (-1)^\bar_^.$

See also

* Angelescu polynomials
* Bessel polynomials
* Denisyuk polynomials
* Transverse mode, an important application of Laguerre polynomials to describe the field intensity within a waveguide or laser beam profile.

Notes

References

*
* G. Szegő, ''Orthogonal polynomials'', 4th edition, ''Amer. Math. Soc. Colloq. Publ.'', vol. 23, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, 1975.
*
* B. Spain, M.G. Smith, ''Functions of mathematical physics'', Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, London, 1970. Chapter 10 deals with Laguerre polynomials.
*
* Eric W. Weisstein,
Laguerre Polynomial
, From MathWorld—A Wolfram Web Resource.
*

External links

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Polynomials
Orthogonal polynomials
Special hypergeometric functions