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African ivories are objects and materials that are created from
African ivories are objects and materials that are created from ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals i ...
or include ivory material that comes from the continent of Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
. The ivory from Africa would become widely sought after by the 14th century due in part to the poorer quality of Asian ivory.Sheriff, A. (2002). ''Slaves, Spices, & Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African commercial empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873''. J. Currey. While Asian ivory is brittle, more difficult to polish, and tends to yellow with exposure to air, African ivory often comes in larger pieces, a more sought after cream color, and is easier to carve. Ivory from Africa came from one of two types of elephant in Africa; the more desirable bush elephant with larger and heavier tusks or the forest elephant with smaller and straighter tusks.
Ivory tusks as well as ivory objects such as carved masks
A mask is an object normally worn on the face, typically for protection, disguise, performance, or entertainment and often they have been employed for rituals and rights. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practi ...
, salt cellars, oliphants and other emblems of importance have been traded and used as gifts and religious ceremonies for hundreds of years in Africa.
History of Ivory in Africa
African ivory has been treasured since ancient times in part because of how it could be carved as well as how difficult it was to acquire. These qualities additionally mean that ivory has always been a symbol of wealth and luxury that can was used to decorate the ivory coffers ofTutankhamen
Tutankhamun (, egy, twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn), Egyptological pronunciation Tutankhamen () (), sometimes referred to as King Tut, was an Egyptian pharaoh who was the last of his royal family to rule during the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty (ruled ...
's Egypt, as well as the ivory throne made by King Solomon. While it is known that the indigenous people of Africa did hunt elephants, it is unknown if they were killed specifically for their tusks. However, by the fourteenth century BCE, elephants were hunted in Egypt for their ivory tusks.Wilson, D., & Ayerst, P. W. (1976). ''White Gold: The Story Of African Ivory''. Taplinger Pub. Co. During this period the three primary sources of ivory were India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, Syria, and North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
including Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
.Sheriff, A. (2002). ''Slaves, Spices, & Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African commercial empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873''. J. Currey. The ivory from North Africa was highly desired by Egypt due to the presence of ivory along the commercial routes of the Nile
The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest ...
as well as foreign entities such as the Carthaginian and Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
empires. However, due to changing climates and the ruthless exploitation and over hunting of elephants for their ivory in this region, the elephant populations began to disappear and by the fourth century CE no living elephants existed north of the Sahara desert
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, photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972
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.
In other regions of Africa, ivory was decorated and carved though there was little to no hunting with the purpose of acquiring ivory until around 1000 CE. There are however several existing examples of carved ivory masks, statuettes, caskets, jewelry, bells, rattles, and other emblems of importance created during this period in Benin
Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the nort ...
and Niger
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, official_languages =
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Afro-Portuguese Ivories
''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Portuguese sailors reportedly did not experience much culture shock when they arrived in western Africa; rather, some experienced awe as they thought the great urban centers of Africa comparable to Lisbon, saying that African cities offered superior organization and hygiene despite their larger populations .
British Museum Collection
/ref> Although ivory is an easily worked material, the ability of determining which sections to carve and how deeply to carve is as technical as cutting Diamond cutting, diamonds. These objects would often be showcased in a cabinet of curiosities or a studiolo. Prominent motifs of
“Kongo Ivories.”
In ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Because the oliphants were used in battle and hunting, they were usually decorated accordingly, with scenes of hunting, combat, and a collection of animals and figures that correlated to the activities taking place. Moreover, oliphants were decorated with different motifs, mottos, inscriptions, and coats of arms of particular Kings of Europe. Oliphants were carved by African artists in various geographic regions as evidenced by the slight variations in motifs. Occasionally, oliphant artists designed the horns to make the mouthpiece look like an animal, especially animals that represented ferocity, such as dragons or wild dogs. Carved into the oliphants were other animal representations, wild, domesticated, and fantastical. The wild animals usually were elephants, rhinoceros, crowned lions/lionesses, and goats. There were also domesticated animals such as enchained elephants, and mythical creatures shown as
]
Bini-Portuguese Ivories are ivories that were created in the
igbesamwan
', and all lived on the same street in order to easily work together. It has been argued that because the ''oba'' commissioned these ivories, they were not made for export to Europe unless the ''oba'' allowed for export. Moreover, as a tribute, the ''oba'' required elephant hunters to give him one of the
The Kongo ivories were made in the Kongo region of Africa. There are seven surviving oliphants, all of which are assumed to have been made by the same Kongo artist due to their uncanny similarities in their designs. The entire oliphant is intricately carved throughout, with plaited and
For spirits and kings: African art from the Paul and Ruth Tishman collection
an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Kongo ivories African art Ivory works of art
Muslim Arab
Arab Muslims ( ar, العرب المسلمون) are adherents of Islam who identify linguistically, culturally, and genealogically as Arabs. Arab Muslims greatly outnumber other ethnoreligious groups in the Middle East and North Africa. Arab M ...
invasion of North Africa in the seventh and eighth centuries brought about trade with Africans south of the Sahara.Rosenthal, R. (1971). ''The sign of the Ivory Horn: Eastern African civilizations''. Oceana Publications. This newly established trade network allowed African towns such as Koumbi Saleh
Koumbi Saleh, sometimes Kumbi Saleh is the site of a ruined medieval town in south east Mauritania that may have been the capital of the Ghana Empire.
From the ninth century, Arab authors mention the Ghana Empire in connection with the trans-S ...
, Gao
Gao , or Gawgaw/Kawkaw, is a city in Mali and the capital of the Gao Region. The city is located on the River Niger, east-southeast of Timbuktu on the left bank at the junction with the Tilemsi valley.
For much of its history Gao was an impor ...
, and Timbuktu
Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou;
Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
to become important trade centers. In these areas, elephant tusks and other forms of ivory were traded for exotic novelties such as silk, copper ornaments, damascened swords, pots, and pans. Additionally, during this period, overseas contracts were established in eastern Africa to furthering the trade of African ivory.
With the newly established ivory trade in sub-Saharan Africa, African ivory began appearing in medieval Europe
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
. This is in larger part to the Muslim presence and trade in central Africa. Portugal, enamored by the prospect of African ivory began searching for alternate sources that did not involve trading with the Muslims. As a result, Portuguese expeditions began exploring the Atlantic seaboard of Africa.Fagg, William (1958). ''Afro-Portuguese Ivories.'' Longon: Batchworth Press. Henry the Navigator, a prince of Portugal, funded and even joined many of these maritime explorations. By 1460, after Henry’s death, the Portuguese reached the area that would be labeled as the ivory coast due to the abundance of the material. Where African elephants no longer existed north of the Sahara, they were still numerous in other regions of Africa. During their expeditions, the Portuguese also marked locations across the African coast where they would be able to easily establish bases and forts as well as take advantage of the indigenous people and resources. Some of the African rulers in those areas became clients and eventually vassals, meanwhile, the Muslim rulers of East Africa were mostly pushed out by the Europeans. The new presence of the Portuguese and growing demand in Europe for ivory stimulated life in old trade routes into central Africa. Areas such as Luanda
Luanda () is the Capital (political), capital and largest city in Angola. It is Angola's primary port, and its major Angola#Economy, industrial, Angola#Culture, cultural and Angola#Demographics, urban centre. Located on Angola's northern Atl ...
, Benguela, Mozambique
Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi ...
, and Mombasa
Mombasa ( ; ) is a coastal city in southeastern Kenya along the Indian Ocean. It was the first capital of the British East Africa, before Nairobi was elevated to capital city status. It now serves as the capital of Mombasa County. The town is ...
became hosts to the trade of unprecedented amounts of African ivory. This trade expanded so quickly that by the sixteenth century approximately 30,000 pounds of African ivory passed through the port of Sofala
Sofala, at present known as Nova Sofala, used to be the chief seaport of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom, whose capital was at Mount Fura. It is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique. It was founded by Somali merchants. This name w ...
. African port cities were equipped to handle the sudden increase of exports with existing trade networks and robust infrastructure.Ross, Emma George (2002).Afro-Portuguese Ivories
''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Portuguese sailors reportedly did not experience much culture shock when they arrived in western Africa; rather, some experienced awe as they thought the great urban centers of Africa comparable to Lisbon, saying that African cities offered superior organization and hygiene despite their larger populations .
Afro-Portuguese ivories
Afro-Portuguese ivories are the sculptural works of ivory produced by the people of west-central Africa's Lower Kongo region. In theKongo Kingdom
The Kingdom of Kongo ( kg, Kongo dya Ntotila or ''Wene wa Kongo;'' pt, Reino do Congo) was a kingdom located in central Africa in present-day northern Angola, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the ...
, ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals i ...
was a precious commodity that was strictly controlled by chiefs and kings, who commissioned sculptors to produce fine ivory sculptures for their personal and courtly use. A significant number of these ivories are now in the British Museum
The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
, many of them made in Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone,)]. officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered by Liberia to the southeast and Guinea surrounds the northern half of the nation. Covering a total area of , Sierr ...
and Benin in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Most of the earliest extant ivory carvings from sub-Saharan Africa were not made for African consumers. Richly decorated oliphants, or side-blown horns, from the sixteenth century are among the earliest known of the Kongo Kingdom's royal commissions in ivory. Although made in the form of musical instruments to be used during court ceremonies, many such sculptures were likely given as gifts and made for sale to Portuguese elites, missionaries, and traders. In the 1950s, historian William Buller Fagg, William Fagg coined the term “Afro-Portuguese ivories” to describe Kongo oliphants and other ivory sculptures from this period. A significant number of Afro-Portuguese ivories are in the British Museum
The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
, many of them made in Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone,)]. officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered by Liberia to the southeast and Guinea surrounds the northern half of the nation. Covering a total area of , Sierr ...
and Benin in the 15th and 16th centuries./ref> Although ivory is an easily worked material, the ability of determining which sections to carve and how deeply to carve is as technical as cutting Diamond cutting, diamonds. These objects would often be showcased in a cabinet of curiosities or a studiolo. Prominent motifs of
African art
African art describes the modern and historical paintings, sculptures, installations, and other visual culture from native or indigenous Ethnic groups of Africa, Africans and the African continent. The definition may also include the art of the ...
are visible in the African ivories, including humans as the subject, and a skill for articulating complex geometries. Motifs in African ivory art of the period show a merging of themes from European patrons and African stylization, establishing a relationship not only as patron and artist but, also as equals through trade that is visualized through art and craft as truly hybrid objects. Uniquely, these African-made ivory objects show imagery that predates the later colonialist and racist iconography due to ensuing power-imbalance between Europe and Africa.
Sapi-Portuguese Ivories
Sapi-Portuguese Ivories are ivories that have been derived from animals and made by Sapi artists from modern-day Sierra Leone. The human figures that were used in Sapi-Portuguese ivories were typically static, with a majority of figures either standing or sitting while facing outward.Sapi Oliphants
The term "oliphant" was derived from the name of the animal from which the ivories were sourced: theelephant
Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae ...
. Oliphants were used as horns, and were often taken into battle or used during the hunt. These elaborately carved wind instruments
Instrument may refer to:
Science and technology
* Flight instruments, the devices used to measure the speed, altitude, and pertinent flight angles of various kinds of aircraft
* Laboratory equipment, the measuring tools used in a scientific lab ...
carved from ivory were made for Europeans by African artists.Bridges, Nichole N“Kongo Ivories.”
In ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Because the oliphants were used in battle and hunting, they were usually decorated accordingly, with scenes of hunting, combat, and a collection of animals and figures that correlated to the activities taking place. Moreover, oliphants were decorated with different motifs, mottos, inscriptions, and coats of arms of particular Kings of Europe. Oliphants were carved by African artists in various geographic regions as evidenced by the slight variations in motifs. Occasionally, oliphant artists designed the horns to make the mouthpiece look like an animal, especially animals that represented ferocity, such as dragons or wild dogs. Carved into the oliphants were other animal representations, wild, domesticated, and fantastical. The wild animals usually were elephants, rhinoceros, crowned lions/lionesses, and goats. There were also domesticated animals such as enchained elephants, and mythical creatures shown as
unicorns
The unicorn is a legendary creature that has been described since Classical antiquity, antiquity as a beast with a single large, pointed, spiraling horn (anatomy), horn projecting from its forehead.
In European literature and art, the unicor ...
, centaurs
A centaur ( ; grc, κένταυρος, kéntauros; ), or occasionally hippocentaur, is a creature from Greek mythology with the upper body of a human and the lower body and legs of a horse.
Centaurs are thought of in many Greek myths as being ...
, and birds with unusual body parts.
Bini-Portuguese Ivories
]
Bini-Portuguese Ivories are ivories that were created in the Kingdom of Benin
The Kingdom of Benin, also known as the Edo Kingdom, or the Benin Empire ( Bini: ') was a kingdom within what is now southern Nigeria. It has no historical relation to the modern republic of Benin, which was known as Dahomey from the 17th ce ...
, now modern-day Nigeria
Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
. Very few ivories from this region of Africa have survived; furthermore, no forks, daggers, knife handles, or religious implements have been found. Uniquely to the Benin culture, most of the carvers had been commissioned by the '' oba'' (the ruler) of the Kingdom of Benin to work in a craft guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...
called the igbesamwan
', and all lived on the same street in order to easily work together. It has been argued that because the ''oba'' commissioned these ivories, they were not made for export to Europe unless the ''oba'' allowed for export. Moreover, as a tribute, the ''oba'' required elephant hunters to give him one of the
tusks
Tusks are elongated, continuously growing front teeth that protrude well beyond the mouth of certain mammal species. They are most commonly canine teeth, as with pigs and walruses, or, in the case of elephants, elongated incisors. Tusks share ...
from each of their elephants, and was always able to buy the second tusk as well. These tusks made up the supplies for the carvers. The figures that were carved into these pieces were typically carved in motion, in comparison to the figures in the Sapi-Portuguese ivories that were static.
Bini Oliphants
Only three examples of the Bini-Portuguese oliphants still exist today, with only two complete in their carving. The surfaces of the oliphants are totally covered with geometric patterns. The oliphants have both Bini and Portuguese motifs: from Benin we see the use of the basket weave, lozenge, guilloche, and step patterns, whereas coats of arms, hunting scenes, and the armillary sphere are drawn from Portuguese imagery. The mouthpiece on these oliphants is always rectangular and located on the convex side of the oliphant itself. Because all of the known Bini-Portuguese oliphants share these features, it is recognized that they were all created by royal carvers that were a part of the ''oba’s igbesamwan'' guild.Bini Saltcellars
All examples of Bini-Portuguese salt cellars are double-chambered, with two separate chambers that are connected vertically with a central tube. Artistically, the imagery on them is divided into two distinct themes: an upper theme and a lower theme. These two themes tend to be designed with differing figures and scenes that are in turn separated by a band/register on the center of the upper chamber. The salt cellars are designed with European imagery, with every human figure dressed in European costumes and clothing, and equestrian figures are often included as well. There is also weaponry included that was mainly used in Europe, such as the matchlock gun and swords.Kongo Ivories
The Kongo ivories were made in the Kongo region of Africa. There are seven surviving oliphants, all of which are assumed to have been made by the same Kongo artist due to their uncanny similarities in their designs. The entire oliphant is intricately carved throughout, with plaited and interlaced
Interlaced video (also known as interlaced scan) is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured consecutively. This ...
patterns, designed in a spiral along the oliphant, which is a typical African design.The standout feature of these oliphants is the addition of geometric motifs: this is what places the oliphants in Kongo, as these designs are traditional amongst the people of the Kongo, and are represented in many forms of art in the community, such as carvings in wood and ivory, in select textiles, and even in body decoration. These geometric motifs were found in the Kongo far before the Portuguese had arrived. These oliphants were used during special occasions, such as investitures and funerals, and were also given as gifts to Portugal from the King of the Kongo.
Carved ivories for export
Around the middle of the nineteenth century, a new style of ivory carving developed in the area to meet the demand of the export trade along the Loango Coast of west-central Africa. This style consisted of fine, detailed relief carving that depicts scenes of Kongo life. Scenes commonly portrayed in relief on the ivories capture the dynamic and cosmopolitan coastal activity related to the transatlantic trade. Most carved Loango tusks are not longer than two to three feet because they were sourced from forest elephants, which are much smaller than the African savannah elephant. Full Loango tusk sculptures that were sculpted from the enormous tusks of savannah elephants are extremely rare; one notable example is now part of the Brooklyn Museum’s collection.References
{{ReflistExternal links
For spirits and kings: African art from the Paul and Ruth Tishman collection
an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Kongo ivories African art Ivory works of art