The Kingdom of
Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Rìoghachd na h-Alba; Scots:
Kinrick o Scotland) was a sovereign state in northwest Europe
traditionally said to have been founded in 843. Its territories
expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the northern third of the
island of Great Britain, sharing a land border to the south with the
Kingdom of England. It suffered many invasions by the English, but
under Robert I it fought a successful war of independence and remained
an independent state throughout the late Middle Ages. In 1603, James
VI of
Scotland
Scotland became King of England, joining
Scotland
Scotland with England
in a personal union. In 1707, the two kingdoms were united to form the
Kingdom of Great Britain
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707–1800).svg.png)
Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union.
Following the annexation of the
Northern Isles
Northern Isles from the Kingdom of
Norway in 1472 and final capture of the
Royal Burgh
Royal Burgh of Berwick by the
Kingdom of England
Kingdom of England in 1482, the territory of the Kingdom of Scotland
corresponded to that of modern-day Scotland, bounded by the North Sea
to the east, the
Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North
Channel and
Irish Sea
Irish Sea to the southwest.
The Crown was the most important element of government. The Scottish
monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution,
before
Edinburgh
Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the
15th century. The Crown remained at the centre of political life and
in the 16th century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic
patronage, until it was effectively dissolved with the Union of Crowns
in 1603. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of
western European monarchical states of the time and developed a Privy
Council and great offices of state. Parliament also emerged as a major
legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but
was never as central to the national life. In the early period, the
kings of the Scots depended on the great lords—the mormaers and
toísechs—but from the reign of David I, sheriffdoms were
introduced, which allowed more direct control and gradually limited
the power of the major lordships. In the 17th century, the creation of
Justices of Peace
Justices of Peace and
Commissioners of Supply helped to increase the
effectiveness of local government. The continued existence of courts
baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the
power of local lairds.
Scots law
Scots law developed in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified
in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of
the council were rationalised, with
Court of Session
.svg/220px-Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(Government_in_Scotland).svg.png)
Court of Session meeting daily in
Edinburgh. In 1532, the
College of Justice
College of Justice was founded, leading to the
training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first
Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage. At the union of
the Crowns in 1603 the
Pound Scots
Pound Scots was fixed at only one-twelfth the
value of the English pound. The Bank of
Scotland
Scotland issued pound notes
from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Act of Union,
however to the present day,
Scotland
Scotland retains unique banknotes.
Geographically,
Scotland
Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands
and the Lowlands. The Highlands had a relatively short growing season,
which was further shortened during the Little Ice Age. From Scotland's
foundation to the inception of the Black Death, the population had
grown to a million; following the plague, it then fell to half a
million. It expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching
roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the
medieval kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French; but
by the early modern era
Middle Scots had begun to dominate.
Christianity was introduced into
Scotland
Scotland from the 6th century. In the
Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that
led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century,
Scotland
Scotland underwent a
Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation that created a
predominately Calvinist national kirk. There were a series of
religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions.
The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its
history, but often relied on privateers and fought a guerre de course.
Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European
innovations from the 16th century; and many Scots took service as
mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Origins: 400–943
1.2 Expansion: 943–1513
1.3 Consolidation and union: 1513–1707
2 Government
3 Law
4 Coinage
5 Geography
6 Demography
7 Language
8 Religion
9 Education
10 Military
10.1 Navy
10.2 Army
11 Flags
12 See also
13 References
13.1 Footnotes
13.2 Notes
13.3 Bibliography
History[edit]
Main article: History of Scotland
Origins: 400–943[edit]
Main article: Origins of the Kingdom of Alba
From the 5th century AD, north Britain was divided into a series of
petty kingdoms. Of these, the four most important were those of the
Picts
Picts in the north-east, the Scots of
Dál Riata
Dál Riata in the west, the
Britons of Strathclyde in the south-west and the Anglian kingdom of
Bernicia
Bernicia (which united with
Deira
Deira to form
Northumbria
Northumbria in 653) in the
south-east, stretching into modern northern England. In AD 793,
ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries such as those at
Iona
Iona and
Lindisfarne, creating fear and confusion across the kingdoms of north
Britain. Orkney,
Shetland
Shetland and the
Western Isles
Western Isles eventually fell to the
Norsemen.[2] These threats may have speeded up a long-term process of
gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language
and customs. There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish
kingdoms, although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover
of Dál Riata, or the other way round. This culminated in the rise of
Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) as "king of the Picts" in the
840s (traditionally dated to 843),[3] which brought to power the House
of Alpin.[4] When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900 one
of his successors, Domnall II (Donald II), was the first man to be
called rí Alban (King of Alba).[5] The term Scotia would increasingly
be used to describe the heartland of these kings, north of the River
Forth, and eventually the entire area controlled by its kings would be
referred to as Scotland.[6] The long reign (900–942/3) of Donald's
successor Causantín (Constantine II) is often regarded as the key to
formation of the Kingdom of Alba/Scotland, and he was later credited
with bringing Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic
Church.[7]
Expansion: 943–1513[edit]
Main article: Medieval Scotland
Máel Coluim I (Malcolm I) (r. c. 943–954) annexed
Strathclyde, over which the kings of
Alba
Alba had probably exercised some
authority since the later 9th century.[8] The reign of David I has
been characterised as a "Davidian Revolution",[9][10] in which he
introduced a system of feudal land tenure, established the first royal
burghs in
Scotland
Scotland and the first recorded Scottish coinage, and
continued a process of religious and legal reforms.[11] Until the 13th
century, the border with
England
England was very fluid, with Northumbria
being annexed to
Scotland
Scotland by David I, but lost under his grandson and
successor Malcolm IV in 1157.[12] The
Treaty of York
_i.JPG/400px-Alexander_II_(Alba)_i.JPG)
Treaty of York (1237) fixed the
boundaries with
England
England close to the modern border.[13] By the reign
of Alexander III, the Scots had annexed the remainder of the western
seaboard after the stalemate of the
Battle of Largs
,_1263.JPG/600px-Battle_of_Largs_(detail),_1263.JPG)
Battle of Largs and the Treaty of
Perth in 1266.[14] The
Isle of Man
Isle of Man fell under English control in the
14th century, despite several attempts to restore Scottish
authority.[15] The English occupied most of
Scotland
Scotland under Edward I
and annexed a large slice of the Lowlands under Edward III, but
Scotland
Scotland established its independence under figures including William
Wallace in the late 13th century and Robert I and his successors in
the 14th century in the Wars of Independence (1296–1357). This was
helped by cooperation with the kings of France, under the terms of
what became known as the Auld Alliance, which provided for mutual aid
against the English. In the 15th and early 16th centuries, under the
Stewart Dynasty, despite a turbulent political history, the Crown
gained greater political control at the expense of independent lords
and regained most of its lost territory to around the modern borders
of the country.[16] The dowry of the
Orkney
Orkney and
Shetland
Shetland Islands in
1468 was the last great land acquisition for the kingdom.[17] In 1482,
Berwick a border fortress and the largest port in medieval Scotland,
fell to the English once again; this was the last time it changed
hands.[16] The
Auld Alliance
Auld Alliance with France led to the heavy defeat of a
Scottish army at the
Battle of Flodden Field
Battle of Flodden Field in 1513 and the death of
the king James IV. A long period of political instability
followed.[18]
Consolidation and union: 1513–1707[edit]
Main article:
Scotland
Scotland in the early modern period
James VI, whose inheritance of the thrones of
England
England and Ireland
created a dynastic union in 1603
In the 16th century, under James V of
Scotland
Scotland and Mary, Queen of
Scots, the Crown and court took on many of the attributes of the
Renaissance
Renaissance and New Monarchy, despite long royal minorities, civil
wars and interventions by the English and French.[19] In the mid-16th
century,
Scottish Reformation
Scottish Reformation was strongly influenced by Calvinism,
leading to widespread iconoclasm and the introduction of a
Presbyterian
Presbyterian system of organisation and discipline that would have a
major impact on Scottish life.[20]
In the late 16th century, James VI emerged as a major intellectual
figure with considerable authority over the kingdom.[21] In 1603 he
inherited the thrones of
England
England and Ireland, creating a Union of the
Crowns that left the three states with their separate identities and
institutions. He also moved the centre of royal patronage and power to
London.[22]
When James' son Charles I attempted to impose elements of the English
religious settlement on Scotland, the result was the Bishops' Wars
(1637–40), which ended in defeat for the king and a virtually
independent
Presbyterian
Presbyterian
Covenanter
Covenanter state in Scotland.[23] It also
helped precipitate the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, during which the
Scots carried out major military interventions.
After Charles I's defeat, the Scots backed the king in the Second
English Civil War; after his execution, they proclaimed his son
Charles II of England
Charles II of England king, resulting in the Third English Civil War
against the emerging republican regime of Parliamentarians in England
led by Oliver Cromwell. The results were a series of defeats and the
short-lived incorporation of
Scotland
Scotland into the Commonwealth of
England,
Scotland
Scotland and
Ireland
Ireland (1653–60).[24]
After the 1660 restoration of the monarchy,
Scotland
Scotland regained its
separate status and institutions, while the centre of political power
remained in London.[25] After the
Glorious Revolution
Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, in
which James VII was deposed by his daughter Mary and her husband
William of Orange in England,
Scotland
Scotland accepted them under the Claim
of Right Act 1689,[25] but the deposed main hereditary line of the
Stuarts became a focus for political discontent known as Jacobitism,
leading to a series of invasions and rebellions mainly focused on the
Scottish Highlands.[26]
After severe economic dislocation in the 1690s, there were moves that
led to political union with
England
England as the Kingdom of Great Britain,
which came into force on 1 May 1707. The English and Scottish
parliaments were replaced by a combined Parliament of Great Britain,
but it sat in
Westminster
Westminster and largely continued English traditions
without interruption. Forty-five Scots were added to the 513 members
of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to the 190 members of the House
of Lords. It was also a full economic union, replacing the Scottish
systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade.[27]
Government[edit]
Main articles: Government in Medieval
Scotland
Scotland and Government in early
modern Scotland
Coronation of Alexander III of
Scotland
Scotland at Scone Abbey; beside him are
the Mormaers of Strathearn and Fife while his genealogy is recited by
a royal poet.
The unified kingdom of
Alba
Alba retained some of the ritual aspects of
Pictish and Scottish kingship. These can be seen in the elaborate
ritual coronation at the
Stone of Scone
Stone of Scone at Scone Abbey.[28]
While the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant
institution, Scone remained one of its most important locations, with
royal castles at Stirling and Perth becoming significant in the later
Middle Ages before
Edinburgh
Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second
half of the 15th century.[29][30]
The Crown remained the most important element of government, despite
the many royal minorities. In the late Middle Ages, it saw much of the
aggrandisement associated with the
New Monarchs elsewhere in
Europe.[31] Theories of constitutional monarchy and resistance were
articulated by Scots, particularly George Buchanan, in the 16th
century, but James VI of
Scotland
Scotland advanced the theory of the divine
right of kings, and these debates were restated in subsequent reigns
and crises. The court remained at the centre of political life, and in
the 16th century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic
patronage, until it was effectively dissolved with the Union of the
Crowns in 1603.[32]
The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western
European courts, including High Steward, Chamberlain, Lord High
Constable,
Earl Marischal and Lord Chancellor.[33] The King's Council
emerged as a full-time body in the 15th century, increasingly
dominated by laymen and critical to the administration of justice.[34]
The Privy Council, which developed in the mid-16th century,[35] and
the great offices of state, including the chancellor, secretary and
treasurer, remained central to the administration of the government,
even after the departure of the Stuart monarchs to rule in England
from 1603.[36] However, it was often sidelined and was abolished after
the Acts of Union 1707, with rule direct from London.[37]
The Parliament of
Scotland
Scotland also emerged as a major legal institution,
gaining an oversight of taxation and policy.[38] By the end of the
Middle Ages it was sitting almost every year, partly because of the
frequent royal minorities and regencies of the period, which may have
prevented it from being sidelined by the monarchy.[39] In the early
modern era, Parliament was also vital to the running of the country,
providing laws and taxation, but it had fluctuating fortunes and was
never as central to the national life as its counterpart in
England.[40]
In the early period, the kings of the Scots depended on the great
lords of the mormaers (later earls) and toísechs (later thanes), but
from the reign of David I, sheriffdoms were introduced, which allowed
more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major
lordships.[41] In the 17th century, the creation of justices of the
peace and the
Commissioner of Supply helped to increase the
effectiveness of local government.[42] The continued existence of
courts baron and introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the
power of local lairds.[43]
Law[edit]
Main article: History of Scots law
The
Regiam Majestatem
Regiam Majestatem is the oldest surviving written digest of Scots
law.
Scots law
Scots law developed into a distinctive system in the Middle Ages and
was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Knowledge of
the nature of
Scots law
Scots law before the 11th century is largely
speculative,[44] but it was probably a mixture of legal traditions
representing the different cultures inhabiting the land at the time,
including Celtic, Britonnic, Irish and Anglo-Saxon customs.[45] The
legal tract, the Leges inter Brettos et Scottos, set out a system of
compensation for injury and death based on ranks and the solidarity of
kin groups.[46] There were popular courts or comhdhails, indicated by
dozens of place names in eastern Scotland.[41] In Scandinavian-held
areas,
Udal law formed the basis of the legal system and it is known
that the
Hebrides
Hebrides were taxed using the
Ounceland measure.[47] Althings
were open-air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the
Jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all "free men". At these
sessions decisions were made, laws passed and complaints
adjudicated.[48]
The introduction of feudalism in the reign of David I of Scotland
would have a profound impact on the development of Scottish law,
establishing feudal land tenure over many parts of the south and east
that eventually spread northward.[49] Sheriffs, originally appointed
by the King as royal administrators and tax collectors, developed
legal functions.[50] Feudal lords also held courts to adjudicate
disputes between their tenants.
By the 14th century, some of these feudal courts had developed into
"petty kingdoms" where the King's courts did not have authority except
for cases of treason.[51] Burghs also had their local laws dealing
mostly with commercial and trade matters and may have become similar
in function to sheriff's courts.[52] Ecclesiastical courts had
exclusive jurisdiction over matters such as marriage, contracts made
on oath, inheritance and legitimacy.[53] Judices were often royal
officials who supervised baronial, abbatial and other lower-ranking
"courts".[54] However, the main official of law in the post-Davidian
Kingdom of the Scots was the
Justiciar who held courts and reported to
the king personally. Normally, there were two Justiciarships,
organised by linguistic boundaries: the
Justiciar of Scotia and the
Justiciar of Lothian, but sometimes
Galloway
Galloway also had its own
Justiciar.[54] Scottish common law, the jus commune, began to take
shape at the end of the period, assimilating Gaelic and Celtic law
with practices from Anglo-Norman
England
England and the Continent.[55]
Institution of the
Court of Session
Court of Session by James V in 1532, from the Great
Window in Parliament House, Edinburgh
During the period of English control over
Scotland
Scotland there is some
evidence that King Edward I of England, called "Hammer of the Scots",
attempted to abolish Scottish laws contrary to
English law
English law as he had
done in Wales.[56][57]
Under Robert I in 1318, a parliament at Scone enacted a code of law
that drew upon older practices. It codified procedures for criminal
trials and protections for vassals from ejection from the land.[58]
From the 14th century, there are surviving examples of early Scottish
legal literature, such as the
Regiam Majestatem
Regiam Majestatem (on procedure at the
royal courts) and the Quoniam Attachiamenta (on procedure at the
barons court), which drew on both common and Roman law.[59]
Customary laws, such as the Law of Clan MacDuff, came under attack
from the
Stewart Dynasty
.svg/400px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Great_Britain_(1707-1714).svg.png)
Stewart Dynasty which consequently extended the reach of
Scots common law.[60] From the reign of King James I a legal
profession began to develop and the administration of criminal and
civil justice was centralised.[61] The growing activity of the
parliament and the centralisation of administration in
Scotland
Scotland called
for the better dissemination of Acts of the parliament to the courts
and other enforcers of the law.[62] In the late 15th century,
unsuccessful attempts were made to form commissions of experts to
codify, update or define Scots law.[63] The general practice during
this period, as evidenced from records of cases, seems to have been to
defer to specific Scottish laws on a matter when available and to fill
in any gaps with provisions from the common law embodied in Civil and
Canon law, which had the advantage of being written.[64]
Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised,
with a royal
Court of Session
Court of Session meeting daily in
Edinburgh
Edinburgh to deal with
civil cases. In 1514, the office of justice-general was created for
the
Earl
Earl of Argyll (and held by his family until 1628).[65] In 1532,
the Royal
College of Justice
College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and
professionalisation of an emerging group of career lawyers. The Court
of Session placed increasing emphasis on its independence from
influence, including from the king, and superior jurisdiction over
local justice. Its judges were increasingly able to control entry to
their own ranks.[66] In 1672, the
High Court of Justiciary
.svg/360px-Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(Scotland).svg.png)
High Court of Justiciary was founded
from the
College of Justice
College of Justice as a supreme court of appeal.[67]
Coinage[edit]
Main article: Scottish coinage
Penny of David II (1329–71)
David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own
coinage. There were soon mints at Edinburgh, Berwick and Roxburgh.[68]
Early Scottish coins were similar to English ones, but with the king's
head in profile instead of full face.[69] The number of coins struck
was small and English coins probably remained more significant in this
period.[68] The first gold coin was a noble (6s. 8d.) of David II.[70]
Under James I pennies and halfpennies of billon (an alloy of silver
with a base metal) were introduced, and copper farthings appeared
under James III.[70] In James V's reign the bawbee (1½ d) and
half-bawbee were issued, and in Mary, Queen of Scot's reign a twopence
piece, the hardhead, was issued to help "the common people buy bread,
drink, flesh, and fish". The billon coinage was discontinued after
1603, but twopence pieces in copper continued to be issued until the
Act of Union in 1707.[68]
A bawbee from the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots
Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to
English ones, but from about 1300 the silver content began to
depreciate more rapidly than English. Between then and 1605 they lost
value at an average of 12 per cent every ten years, three times the
then English rate. The Scottish penny became a base metal coin in
about 1484 and virtual disappeared as a separate coin from about
1513.[69] In 1423, the English government banned the circulation of
Scottish coins. At the union of the crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound
was fixed at only one-twelfth that of the English pound.[68] The
Parliament of
Scotland
Scotland of 1695 enacted proposals to set up the Bank of
Scotland.[71] The bank issued pound notes from 1704, which had the
face value of £12 Scots. Scottish currency was abolished at the Act
of Union, the Scottish coin in circulation was drawn in to be
re-minted according to the English standard.[72]
Geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of Scotland
The topography of Scotland.
At its borders in 1707, the Kingdom of
Scotland
Scotland was half the size of
England
England and
Wales
Wales in area, but with its many inlets, islands and
inland lochs, it had roughly the same amount of coastline at 4,000
miles (6,400 km).[73]
Scotland
Scotland has over 790 offshore islands,
most of which are to be found in four main groups: Shetland, Orkney,
and the Hebrides, subdivided into the Inner
Hebrides
Hebrides and Outer
Hebrides.[74] Only a fifth of
Scotland
Scotland is less than 60 metres
above sea level.[73] The defining factor in the geography of Scotland
is the distinction between the
Highlands and Islands
.svg/440px-Highlands_and_Islands_(Scottish_Parliament_electoral_region).svg.png)
Highlands and Islands in the north and
west and the Lowlands in the south and east. The highlands are further
divided into the
Northwest Highlands
Northwest Highlands and the
Grampian Mountains
_Named_(HR).png/400px-Scotland_(Location)_Named_(HR).png)
Grampian Mountains by the
fault line of the Great Glen. The Lowlands are divided into the
fertile belt of the
Central Lowlands
_Named_(HR).png/440px-Scotland_(Location)_Named_(HR).png)
Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the
Southern Uplands, which included the Cheviot Hills, over which the
border with
England
England ran.[75] The Central Lowland belt averages about
50 miles in width[76] and, because it contains most of the good
quality agricultural land and has easier communications, could support
most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional government.[77]
However, the Southern Uplands, and particularly the Highlands were
economically less productive and much more difficult to govern.[78]
Its east Atlantic position means that
Scotland
Scotland has very heavy
rainfall: today about 700 mm per year in the east and over
1000 mm in the west. This encouraged the spread of blanket bogs,
the acidity of which, combined with high level of wind and salt spray,
made most of the islands treeless. The existence of hills, mountains,
quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest
extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature
of political power.[73] The Uplands and Highlands had a relatively
short growing season, in the extreme case of the upper Grampians an
ice free season of four months or less and for much of the Highlands
and Uplands of seven months or less. The early modern era also saw the
impact of the Little Ice Age, with 1564 seeing thirty-three days of
continual frost, where rivers and lochs froze, leading to a series of
subsistence crises until the 1690s.[79]
Demography[edit]
Main article: Demographic history of Scotland
Plan of
Edinburgh
Edinburgh in 1764, the largest city in
Scotland
Scotland in the early
modern era
From the formation of the
Kingdom of Alba
.jpg/400px-Coronation_Chair_and_Stone_of_Scone._Anonymous_Engraver._Published_in_A_History_of_England_(1855).jpg)
Kingdom of Alba in the 10th century until
before the
Black Death
Black Death arrived in 1349, estimates based on the amount
of farmable land suggest that population may have grown from half a
million to a million.[80] Although there is no reliable documentation
on the impact of the plague, there are many anecdotal references to
abandoned land in the following decades. If the pattern followed that
in England, then the population may have fallen to as low as half a
million by the end of the 15th century.[81]
Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in
the later
Highland Clearances
Highland Clearances and the Industrial Revolution, these
numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom,
with roughly half living north of the River Tay.[82] Perhaps ten per
cent of the population lived in one of many burghs that grew up in the
later medieval period, mainly in the east and south. They would have
had a mean population of about 2000, but many would have been much
smaller than 1000 and the largest, Edinburgh, probably had a
population of over 10,000 by the end of the Medieval era.[83]
Price inflation, which generally reflects growing demand for food,
suggests that the population probably expanded in the first half of
the 16th century, levelling off after the famine of 1595, as prices
were relatively stable in the early 17th century.[84] Calculations
based on hearth tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of
1,234,575, but this figure may have been seriously effected by the
subsequent famines of the late 1690s.[85] By 1750, with its suburbs,
Edinburgh
Edinburgh reached 57,000. The only other towns above 10,000 by the
same time were
Glasgow
Glasgow with 32,000,
Aberdeen
Aberdeen with around 16,000 and
Dundee
Dundee with 12,000.[86]
Language[edit]
Main article: Celtic languages
The linguistic divide c. 1400, based on place-name evidence.
Scottish Gaelic
Scots
Norn
Historical sources, as well as place name evidence, indicate the ways
in which the
Pictish language
Pictish language in the north and
Cumbric
Cumbric languages in
the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic,
Old English
Old English and later
Norse in the Early Middle Ages.[87] By the High Middle Ages, the
majority of people within
Scotland
Scotland spoke the Gaelic language, then
simply called Scottish, or in Latin, lingua Scotica.[88] In the
Northern Isles
Northern Isles the
Norse language
Norse language brought by Scandinavian occupiers
and settlers evolved into the local Norn, which lingered until the end
of the 18th century[89] and Norse may also have survived as a spoken
language until the 16th century in the Outer Hebrides.[90] French,
Flemish
Flemish and particularly English became the main language of Scottish
burghs, most of which were located in the south and east, an area to
which Anglian settlers had already brought a form of Old English. In
the later part of the 12th century, the writer Adam of Dryburgh
described lowland
Lothian
Lothian as "the Land of the English in the Kingdom
of the Scots".[91] At least from the accession of David I, Gaelic
ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was probably
replaced by French, as evidenced by reports from contemporary
chronicles, literature and translations of administrative documents
into the French language.[92][93]
In the Late Middle Ages, Middle Scots, often simply called English,
became the dominant language of the kingdom. It was derived largely
from Old English, with the addition of elements from Gaelic and
French. Although resembling the language spoken in northern England,
it became a distinct dialect from the late 14th century onwards.[94]
It began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned
French. By the 15th century, it was the language of government, with
acts of parliament, council records and treasurer's accounts almost
all using it from the reign of James I onwards. As a result, Gaelic,
once dominant north of the Tay, began a steady decline.[94] Lowland
writers began to treat Gaelic as a second class, rustic and even
amusing language, helping to frame attitudes towards the Highlands and
to create a cultural gulf with the Lowlands.[94]
From the mid-16th century, written Scots was increasingly influenced
by the developing
Standard English of Southern
England
England due to
developments in royal and political interactions with England.[95]
With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in
England, most writing in
Scotland
Scotland came to be done in the English
fashion.[96] Unlike many of his predecessors, James VI generally
despised Gaelic culture.[97] Having extolled the virtues of Scots
"poesie", after his accession to the English throne, he increasingly
favoured the language of southern England. In 1611, the Kirk adopted
the 1611
Authorized King James Version
Authorized King James Version of the Bible. In 1617,
interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London
because as Scots and Englishmen were now "not so far different bot ane
understandeth ane uther". Jenny Wormald, describes James as creating a
"three-tier system, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the
top".[98]
Religion[edit]
Main article: History of Christianity in Scotland
Dundrennan Abbey, one of the many royal foundations of the 12th
century
The Pictish and Scottish kingdoms that would form the basis of the
Kingdom of Alba
Kingdom of Alba were largely converted by Irish-Scots missions
associated with figures such as St Columba, from the 5th to the 7th
centuries. These missions tended to found monastic institutions and
collegiate churches that served large areas.[99] Partly as a result of
these factors, some scholars have identified a distinctive form of
Celtic Christianity, in which abbots were more significant than
bishops, attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there
were some significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity,
particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter.
Most of these issues had been resolved by the mid-7th
century.[100][101] After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland
from the 10th century, Christianity under papal authority was the
dominant religion of the kingdom.[102]
In the Norman period, the Scottish church underwent a series of
reforms and transformations. With royal and lay patronage, a clearer
parochial structure based around local churches was developed.[103]
Large numbers of new foundations, which followed continental forms of
reformed monasticism, began to predominate and the Scottish church
established its independence from England, developed a clearer
diocesan structure, becoming a "special daughter of the see of Rome",
but lacking leadership in the form of Archbishops.[104] In the late
Middle Ages, the problems of schism in the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church allowed the
Scottish Crown to gain greater influence over senior appointments and
two archbishoprics had been established by the end of the 15th
century.[105] While some historians have discerned a decline of
monasticism in the late Middle Ages, the mendicant orders of friars
grew, particularly in the expanding burghs, to meet the spiritual
needs of the population. New saints and cults of devotion also
proliferated. Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy
after the
Black Death
Black Death in the 14th century, and some evidence of heresy
in this period, the Church in
Scotland
Scotland remained relatively stable
before the 16th century.[105]
John Knox, one of the key figures in the Scottish Reformation
During the 16th century,
Scotland
Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation
that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, which was
strongly
Presbyterian
Presbyterian in outlook, severely reducing the powers of
bishops, although not abolishing them. The teachings of first Martin
Luther and then
John Calvin
John Calvin began to influence Scotland, particularly
through Scottish scholars who had visited continental and English
universities. Particularly important was the work of the Lutheran Scot
Patrick Hamilton.[106] His execution with other Protestant preachers
in 1528, and of the Zwingli-influenced
George Wishart
George Wishart in 1546, who was
burnt at the stake in St Andrews, did nothing to stem the growth of
these ideas. Wishart's supporters seized
St Andrews
St Andrews Castle, which they
held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French
forces. The survivors, including chaplain John Knox, were condemned to
be galley slaves, helping to create resentment of the French and
martyrs for the Protestant cause.[107] Limited toleration and the
influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries, led to
the expansion of Protestantism, with a group of lairds declaring
themselves
Lords of the Congregation in 1557. By 1560, a relatively
small group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the
Scottish church. A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction
and the mass, was adopted by Parliament in 1560.[108] The
Calvinism
Calvinism of
the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a
Presbyterian
Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of
the Medieval church. This gave considerable power within the new Kirk
to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the
clergy, and resulting in widespread, but generally orderly,
iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably
still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk would find it difficult to
penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of
conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations
elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.[109]
The riots set off by
Jenny Geddes
Jenny Geddes in
St Giles Cathedral
St Giles Cathedral that sparked
off the Bishops' Wars
In 1635, Charles I authorised a book of canons that made him head of
the Church, ordained an unpopular ritual and enforced the use of a new
liturgy. When the liturgy emerged in 1637 it was seen as an
English-style Prayer Book, resulting in anger and widespread
rioting.[110] Representatives of various sections of Scottish society
drew up the
National Covenant
National Covenant on 28 February 1638, objecting to the
King's liturgical innovations.[111] The king's supporters were unable
to suppress the rebellion and the king refused to compromise. In
December of the same year, matters were taken even further, when at a
meeting of the General Assembly in
Glasgow
Glasgow the Scottish bishops were
formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a
full
Presbyterian
Presbyterian basis. Victory in the resulting Bishops' Wars
secured the
Presbyterian
Presbyterian Kirk and precipitated the outbreak of the
civil wars of the 1640s.[112] Disagreements over collaboration with
Royalism created a major conflict between Protesters and
Resolutioners, which became a long term divide in the Kirk.[113]
At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, legislation was revoked
back to 1633, removing the
Covenanter
Covenanter gains of the Bishops' Wars, but
the discipline of kirk sessions, presbyteries and synods were
renewed.[114] The reintroduction of episcopacy was a source of
particular trouble in the south-west of the country, an area with
strong
Presbyterian
Presbyterian sympathies. Abandoning the official church, many
of the people here began to attend illegal field assemblies led by
excluded ministers, known as conventicles.[115] In the early 1680s, a
more intense phase of persecution began, in what was later to be known
in Protestant historiography as "the Killing Time".[116] After the
Glorious Revolution,
Presbyterianism
Presbyterianism was restored and the bishops, who
had generally supported James VII, abolished. However, William, who
was more tolerant than the kirk tended to be, passed acts restoring
the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution. The result was
a Kirk divided between factions, with significant minorities,
particularly in the west and north, of Episcopalians and
Catholics.[117]
Education[edit]
Main article: History of education in Scotland
Tower of St Salvator's College, St Andrews, one of the three
universities founded in the 15th century
The establishment of Christianity brought
Latin
Latin to
Scotland
Scotland as a
scholarly and written language. Monasteries served as repositories of
knowledge and education, often running schools and providing a small
educated elite, who were essential to create and read documents in a
largely illiterate society.[118] In the High Middle Ages, new sources
of education arose, with song and grammar schools. These were usually
attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church and were most common in
the developing burghs. By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools
could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns.[119] There
were also petty schools, more common in rural areas and providing an
elementary education.[120] Some monasteries, like the Cistercian abbey
at Kinloss, opened their doors to a wider range of students.[120] The
number and size of these schools seems to have expanded rapidly from
the 1380s. They were almost exclusively aimed at boys, but by the end
of the 15th century,
Edinburgh
Edinburgh also had schools for girls, sometimes
described as "sewing schools", and probably taught by lay women or
nuns.[119][120] There was also the development of private tuition in
the families of lords and wealthy burghers.[119] The growing emphasis
on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496,
which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance
should attend grammar schools to learn "perfyct Latyne". All this
resulted in an increase in literacy, but which was largely
concentrated among a male and wealthy elite,[119] with perhaps 60 per
cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period.[121]
Until the 15th century, those who wished to attend university had to
travel to
England
England or the continent, and just over a 1,000 have been
identified as doing so between the 12th century and 1410.[122] Among
these the most important intellectual figure was John Duns Scotus, who
studied at Oxford, Cambridge and Paris and probably died at Cologne in
1308, becoming a major influence on late medieval religious
thought.[123] The Wars of Independence largely closed English
universities to Scots, and consequently continental universities
became more significant.[122] This situation was transformed by the
founding of the University of
St Andrews
St Andrews in 1413, the University of
Glasgow
Glasgow in 1450 and the University of
Aberdeen
Aberdeen in 1495.[119] Initially
these institutions were designed for the training of clerics, but they
were increasingly used by laymen who would begin to challenge the
clerical monopoly of administrative posts in the government and law.
Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go
abroad.[122] The continued movement to other universities produced a
school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early 16th century, of
which John Mair was probably the most important figure. By 1497, the
humanist and historian Hector Boece, born in Dundee, returned from
Paris to become the first principal at the new university of
Aberdeen.[122] These international contacts helped integrate Scotland
into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most
important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were brought into
Scottish intellectual life.[121]
A woodcut showing John Mair, one of the most successful products of
the Scottish educational system in the late 15th century
The humanist concern with widening education was shared by the
Protestant reformers, with a desire for a godly people replacing the
aim of having educated citizens. In 1560, the First Book of Discipline
set out a plan for a school in every parish, but this proved
financially impossible.[124] In the burghs the old schools were
maintained, with the song schools and a number of new foundations
becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools. Schools
were supported by a combination of kirk funds, contributions from
local heritors or burgh councils and parents that could pay. They were
inspected by kirk sessions, who checked for the quality of teaching
and doctrinal purity. There were also large number of unregulated
"adventure schools", which sometimes fulfilled a local needs and
sometimes took pupils away from the official schools. Outside of the
established burgh schools, masters often combined their position with
other employment, particularly minor posts within the kirk, such as
clerk.[125] At their best, the curriculum included catechism, Latin,
French,
Classical literature
Classical literature and sports.[126]
In 1616, an act in Privy council commanded every parish to establish a
school "where convenient means may be had", and when the Parliament of
Scotland
Scotland ratified this with the Education Act of 1633, a tax on local
landowners was introduced to provide the necessary endowment. A
loophole which allowed evasion of this tax was closed in the Education
Act of 1646, which established a solid institutional foundation for
schools on
Covenanter
Covenanter principles. Although the Restoration brought a
reversion to the 1633 position, in 1696 new legislation restored the
provisions of 1646. An act of the Scottish parliament in 1696
underlined the aim of having a school in every parish. In rural
communities these obliged local landowners (heritors) to provide a
schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster, while ministers and local
presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education. In many Scottish
towns, burgh schools were operated by local councils.[127] By the late
17th century, there was a largely complete network of parish schools
in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still
lacking in many areas.[128]
Andrew Melville, credited with major reforms in Scottish Universities
in the 16th century.
The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity
of women, vied with a desire, intensified after the Reformation, for
women to take personal moral responsibility, particularly as wives and
mothers. In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and
understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the
Bible, but most commentators, even those that tended to encourage the
education of girls, thought they should not receive the same academic
education as boys. In the lower ranks of society, they benefited from
the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the
Reformation, but were usually outnumbered by boys, often taught
separately, for a shorter time and to a lower level. They were
frequently taught reading, sewing and knitting, but not writing.
Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were
around 90 percent, from the late 17th to the early 18th centuries and
perhaps 85 percent for women of all ranks by 1750, compared with 35
per cent for men.[129] Among the nobility there were many educated and
cultured women, of which
Mary, Queen of Scots
_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-François_Clouet_-_Mary,_Queen_of_Scots_(1542-87)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
Mary, Queen of Scots is the most obvious
example.[130]
After the Reformation, Scotland's universities underwent a series of
reforms associated with Andrew Melville, who returned from
Geneva
Geneva to
become principal of the University of
Glasgow
Glasgow in 1574. He placed an
emphasis on simplified logic and elevated languages and sciences to
the same status as philosophy, allowing accepted ideas in all areas to
be challenged.[131] He introduced new specialist teaching staff,
replacing the system of "regenting", where one tutor took the students
through the entire arts curriculum.[132]
Metaphysics
Metaphysics were abandoned
and Greek became compulsory in the first year followed by Aramaic,
Syriac and Hebrew, launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical
languages.
Glasgow
Glasgow had probably been declining as a university before
his arrival, but students now began to arrive in large numbers. He
assisted in the reconstruction of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in
order to do for
St Andrews
St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was
appointed Principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1580. The
University of
Edinburgh
Edinburgh developed out of public lectures were
established in the town 1440s on law, Greek,
Latin
Latin and philosophy,
under the patronage of Mary of Guise. These evolved into the "Tounis
College", which would become the University of
Edinburgh
Edinburgh in 1582.[133]
The results were a revitalisation of all Scottish universities, which
were now producing a quality of education the equal of that offered
anywhere in Europe.[131] Under the Commonwealth, the universities saw
an improvement in their funding, as they were given income from
deaneries, defunct bishoprics and the excise, allowing the completion
of buildings including the college in the High Street in Glasgow. They
were still largely seen as a training school for clergy, and came
under the control of the hard line Protestors.[134] After the
Restoration there was a purge of the universities, but much of the
intellectual advances of the preceding period was preserved.[135] The
universities recovered from the upheavals of the mid-century with a
lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and
science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the
nobility and gentry.[128]
Military[edit]
Navy[edit]
Main articles:
Royal Scots Navy
Royal Scots Navy and History of the Royal Navy
A carving of a birlinn from a 16th-century tombstone in MacDufie's
Chapel, Oronsay, as engraved in 1772
There are mentions in Medieval records of fleets commanded by Scottish
kings including William the Lion[136] and Alexander II. The latter
took personal command of a large naval force which sailed from the
Firth of Clyde
Firth of Clyde and anchored off the island of
Kerrera
Kerrera in 1249,
intended to transport his army in a campaign against the Kingdom of
the Isles, but he died before the campaign could begin.[137][138]
Records indicate that Alexander had several large oared ships built at
Ayr, but he avoided a sea battle.[136] Defeat on land at the Battle of
Largs and winter storms forced the Norwegian fleet to return home,
leaving the Scottish crown as the major power in the region and
leading to the ceding of the
Western Isles
Western Isles to Alexander in 1266.[14]
Part of the reason for Robert I's success in the Wars of Independence
was his ability to call on naval forces from the Islands. As a result
of the expulsion of the
Flemings
.jpg/440px-Pieter_Brueghel_de_Jonge_-_De_bruiloft_dans_(1625).jpg)
Flemings from
England
England in 1303, he gained the
support of a major naval power in the North Sea.[139] The development
of naval power allowed Robert to successfully defeat English attempts
to capture him in the
Highlands and Islands
Highlands and Islands and to blockade major
English controlled fortresses at Perth and Stirling, the last forcing
Edward II to attempt the relief that resulted in English defeat at
Bannockburn in 1314.[139] Scottish naval forces allowed invasions of
the
Isle of Man
Isle of Man in 1313 and 1317 and
Ireland
Ireland in 1315. They were also
crucial in the blockade of Berwick, which led to its fall in
1318.[139] After the establishment of Scottish independence, Robert I
turned his attention to building up a Scottish naval capacity. This
was largely focused on the west coast, with the Exchequer Rolls of
1326 recording the feudal duties of his vassals in that region to aid
him with their vessels and crews. Towards the end of his reign he
supervised the building of at least one royal man-of-war near his
palace at Cardross on the River Clyde. In the late 14th century, naval
warfare with
England
England was conducted largely by hired Scots,
Flemish
Flemish and
French merchantmen and privateers.[140] James I took a greater
interest in naval power. After his return to
Scotland
Scotland in 1424, he
established a shipbuilding yard at Leith, a house for marine stores,
and a workshop. King's ships were built and equipped there to be used
for trade as well as war, one of which accompanied him on his
expedition to the Islands in 1429. The office of Lord High Admiral was
probably founded in this period. In his struggles with his nobles in
1488 James III received assistance from his two warships the Flower
and the King's Carvel also known as the Yellow Carvel.[140]
A model of the Great Michael in the Royal Museum
There were various attempts to create royal naval forces in the 15th
century. James IV put the enterprise on a new footing, founding a
harbour at Newhaven and a dockyard at the Pools of Airth.[141] He
acquired a total of 38 ships including the Great Michael,[142] at that
time, the largest ship in Europe.[142][143] Scottish ships had some
success against privateers, accompanied the king on his expeditions in
the islands and intervened in conflicts in Scandinavia and the
Baltic,[140] but were sold after the Flodden campaign and after 1516
Scottish naval efforts would rely on privateering captains and hired
merchantmen.[140] James V did not share his father's interest in
developing a navy and shipbuilding fell behind that of the Low
Countries.[144] Despite truces between
England
England and
Scotland
Scotland there were
periodic outbreaks of a guerre de course.[145] James V built a new
harbour at
Burntisland
Burntisland in 1542.[146] The chief use of naval power in
his reign was a series of expeditions to the Isles and France.[147]
After the
Union of Crowns
Union of Crowns in 1603 conflict between
Scotland
Scotland and
England
England ended, but
Scotland
Scotland found itself involved in England's foreign
policy, opening up Scottish shipping to attack. In 1626, a squadron of
three ships was bought and equipped.[143] There were also several
marque fleets of privateers.[148] In 1627, the
Royal Scots Navy
Royal Scots Navy and
accompanying contingents of burgh privateers participated in the major
expedition to Biscay.[149] The Scots also returned to the West
Indies[150] and in 1629 took part in the capture of Quebec.[151]
During the Bishop's Wars the king attempted to blockade
Scotland
Scotland and
planned amphibious assaults from
England
England on the East coast and from
Ireland
Ireland to the West.[152] Scottish privateers took a number of English
prizes.[153] After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament
they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea
coasts, known collectively as the "Scotch Guard".[154] The Scottish
navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the
army led by Cromwell that conquered
Scotland
Scotland in 1649–51 and the
Scottish ships and crews were split up among the Commonwealth
fleet.[155] Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary
impressment by English men of war, but a fixed quota of conscripts for
the
Royal Navy
Royal Navy was levied from the sea-coast burghs during the second
half of the 17th century.[156]
Royal Navy
Royal Navy patrols were now found in
Scottish waters even in peacetime.[157] In the Second (1665–67) and
Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (1672–74) between 80 and 120 captains, took
Scottish letters of marque and privateers played a major part in the
naval conflict.[158] In the 1690s, a small fleet of five ships was
established by merchants for the Darien Scheme,[159] and a
professional navy was established for the protection of commerce in
home waters during the Nine Years' War, with three purpose-built
warships bought from English shipbuilders in 1696. After the Act of
Union in 1707, these vessels were transferred to the Royal Navy.[160]
Army[edit]
Main articles: Royal Scottish Army, Warfare in Medieval Scotland, and
Warfare in early modern Scotland
Scottish soldiers in the period of the Hundred Years' War, detail from
an edition of Froissart's Chronicles
Before the
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/560px-Sir_Anthony_Van_Dyck_-_Charles_I_(1600-49)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
Wars of the Three Kingdoms in the mid-17th century, there
was no standing army in the Kingdom of Scotland. In the Early Middle
Ages, war in
Scotland
Scotland was characterised by the use of small war-bands
of household troops often engaging in raids and low level
warfare.[161] By the High Middle Ages, the kings of
Scotland
Scotland could
command forces of tens of thousands of men for short periods as part
of the "common army", mainly of poorly armoured spear and bowmen.
After the "Davidian Revolution" of the 12th century, which introduced
elements of feudalism to Scotland, these forces were augmented by
small numbers of mounted and heavily armoured knights. These armies
rarely managed to stand up to the usually larger and more professional
armies produced by England, but they were used to good effect by
Robert I at the
Battle of Bannockburn
Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 to secure Scottish
independence.[162] After the Wars of Scottish Independence, the Auld
Alliance between
Scotland
Scotland and France played a large part in the
country's military activities, especially during the Hundred Years'
War. In the Late Middle Ages, under the Stewart kings forces were
further augmented by specialist troops, particularly men-at-arms and
archers, hired by bonds of manrent, similar to English indentures of
the same period.[163] Archers became much sought after as mercenaries
in French armies of the 15th century in order to help counter the
English superiority in this arm, becoming a major element of the
French royal guards as the Garde Écossaise.[164] The Stewarts also
adopted major innovations in continental warfare, such as longer pikes
and the extensive use of artillery. However, in the early 16th century
one of the best armed and largest Scottish armies ever assembled still
met with defeat at the hands of an English army at the Battle of
Flodden Field in 1513, which saw the destruction of a large number of
ordinary troops, a large section of the nobility and the king, James
IV.[165] In the 16th century, the crown took an increasing role in the
supply of military equipment.[166] The pike began to replace the spear
and the Scots began to convert from the bow to gunpowder
firearms.[167] The feudal heavy cavalry had begun to disappear from
Scottish armies and the Scots fielded relatively large numbers of
light horse, often drawn from the borders.[168] James IV brought in
experts from France, Germany and the Netherlands and established a gun
foundry in 1511.[147] Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the
nature of castle architecture from the mid-15th century.[169]
The earliest image of Scottish soldiers wearing tartan, from a woodcut
c. 1631
In the early 17th century, relatively large numbers of Scots took
service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty Years War.[170] As
armed conflict with Charles I in the Bishop's Wars became likely,
hundreds of Scots mercenaries returned home from foreign service,
including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie and
these veterans played an important role in training recruits.[152]
These systems would form the basis of the
Covenanter
Covenanter armies that
intervened in the Civil Wars in
England
England and Ireland.[171] Scottish
infantry were generally armed, as was almost universal in Western
Europe, with a combination of pike and shot. Scottish armies may also
have had individuals with a variety of weapons including bows,
Lochaber axes, and halberds.[172] Most cavalry were probably equipped
with pistols and swords, although there is some evidence that they
included lancers.[173] Royalist armies, like those led by James
Graham, Marquis of Montrose (1643–44) and in Glencairn's rising
(1653–54) were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with
pike and shot.[174] Montrose's forces were short of heavy artillery
suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry.[175]
At the Restoration the Privy Council established a force of several
infantry regiments and a few troops of horse and there were attempts
to found a national militia on the English model. The standing army
was mainly employed in the suppression of
Covenanter
Covenanter rebellions and
the guerilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the East.[176]
Pikemen became less important in the late 17th century and after the
introduction of the socket bayonet disappeared altogether, while
matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable flintlock.[176]
On the eve of the Glorious Revolution, the standing army in Scotland
was about 3,000 men in various regiments and another 268 veterans in
the major garrison towns.[177] After the
Glorious Revolution
Glorious Revolution the Scots
were drawn into King William II's continental wars, beginning with the
Nine Years' War
.JPG/600px-Siege_of_Namur_(1692).JPG)
Nine Years' War in Flanders (1689–97).[178] By the time of the Act
of Union, the Kingdom of
Scotland
Scotland had a standing army of seven units
of infantry, two of horse and one troop of Horse Guards, besides
varying levels of fortress artillery in the garrison castles of
Edinburgh, Dumbarton, and Stirling, which would be incorporated into
the British Army.[179]
Flags[edit]
Main article: Flag of Scotland
Sculpture of Saint Andrew, Freemasons Hall, Edinburgh
The earliest recorded use of the Lion Rampant as a royal emblem in
Scotland
Scotland was by Alexander II in 1222.[180] It is recorded with the
additional embellishment of a double border set with lilies during the
reign of Alexander III (1249–86).[180] This emblem occupied the
shield of the royal coat of arms which, together with a royal banner
displaying the same, was used by the King of Scots until the Union of
the Crowns in 1603.[181] Then it was incorporated into both the royal
arms and royal banners of successive Scottish then British monarchs in
order to symbolise Scotland; as can be seen today in the Royal
Standard of the United Kingdom.[182] Although now officially
restricted to use by representatives of the Sovereign and at royal
residences, the Royal Standard of
Scotland
Scotland continues to be one of
Scotland's most recognisable symbols.[183]
According to legend, the apostle and martyr Saint Andrew, the patron
saint of Scotland, was crucified on an X-shaped cross at Patras
(Patrae) in Achaea.[184] Use of the familiar iconography of his
martyrdom, showing the apostle bound to an X-shaped cross, first
appears in the Kingdom of
Scotland
Scotland in 1180 during the reign of William
I. This image was again depicted on seals used during the late 13th
century; including on one particular example used by the Guardians of
Scotland, dated 1286.[184] Use of a simplified symbol associated with
Saint Andrew which does not depict his image, namely the saltire, or
crux decussata (from the
Latin
Latin crux, 'cross', and decussis, 'having
the shape of the Roman numeral X'), has its origins in the late 14th
century; the Parliament of
Scotland
Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish
soldiers wear a white Saint Andrew's
Cross
Cross on their person, both in
front and behind, for the purpose of identification.[185] The earliest
reference to the Saint Andrew's
Cross
Cross as a flag is to be found in the
Vienna Book of Hours, c. 1503, where a white saltire is depicted with
a red background.[185] In the case of Scotland, use of a blue
background for the Saint Andrew's
Cross
Cross is said to date from at least
the 15th century,[186] with the first certain illustration of a flag
depicting such appearing in Sir
David Lyndsay
David Lyndsay of the Mount's Register
of Scottish Arms, c. 1542.[187]
Following the
Union of the Crowns
Union of the Crowns in 1603, James VI, King of Scots,
commissioned new designs for a banner incorporating the flags of the
Kingdom of
Scotland
Scotland and Kingdom of England. In 1606, a
Union Flag
Union Flag was
commissioned, combining the crosses of
Saint George
_-_Heiliger_Georg.jpg/400px-Hans_Süß_von_Kulmbach_(zugeschr.)_-_Heiliger_Georg.jpg)
Saint George (the Flag of
England), with that of Saint Andrew.[188] There was also a Scottish
version of this flag, in which the cross of Saint Andrew overlaid the
cross of St George. This design may have seen limited, unofficial use
in
Scotland
Scotland until 1707, when the English variant of the same, whereby
the cross of St George overlaid that of St Andrew, was adopted as the
flag of the unified Kingdom of Great Britain.[189][190][191][192]
The Royal Standard of Scotland
The Royal Standard of
Scotland
Scotland used, with minor variations, between
1603 and 1707.
The Flag of Scotland; Azure, a saltire argent
The Scottish
Union Flag
Union Flag used between 1606 and 1707.
See also[edit]
Falkland Palace
Linlithgow Palace
List of monarchs of Scotland
Obsolete Scottish units of measurement
Royal Consorts of Scotland
Scottish monarchs family tree
Scottish Term Day
References[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
^
Old English (950–1066)
Middle English (1066–1550)
Modern English (1550–1707)
^
Old English (until 1066)
Middle English (1066–13th century)
Early Scots (13th century–1450)
Middle Scots (from 1450)
^ Became the chief language of governance in the eleventh- and twelfth
centuries.
^ Widely used for administrative and liturgical purposes.
Notes[edit]
^ Sharpe, R (2011). "Peoples and Languages in Eleventh- and
Twelfth-century Britain and Ireland: Reading the Charter Evidence"
(PDF). In Broun, D. The Reality Behind Charter Diplomatic in
Anglo-Norman Britain (PDF). Glasgow: Centre for Scottish and Celtic
Studies, University of Glasgow. pp. 1–119.
ISBN 978-0-85261-919-3 – via Paradox of Medieval Scotland
1093–1286.
^ W. E. Burns, A Brief History of
Great Britain
Great Britain (Infobase Publishing,
2009), ISBN 0816077282, pp. 44–5.
^ B. Webster, Medieval Scotland: the Making of an Identity (St.
Martin's Press, 1997), ISBN 0333567617, p. 15.
^ B. Yorke, The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society
in Britain c.600–800 (Pearson Education, 2006),
ISBN 0582772923, p. 54.
^ A. O. Anderson, Early Sources of Scottish History, A.D. 500 to 1286
(General Books LLC, 2010), vol. i, ISBN 1152215728, p. 395.
^ Webster, Medieval Scotland, p. 22.
^ A. Woolf, From Pictland to Alba: 789 – 1070 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748612343, p. 128.
^ B. T. Hudson, Kings of Celtic
Scotland
Scotland (Westport: Greenhill 1994),
ISBN 0313290873, pp. 95–96.
^ G. W. S. Barrow, "David I of Scotland: The Balance of New and Old",
in G. W. S. Barrow, ed.,
Scotland
Scotland and Its Neighbours in the Middle
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^ M. Lynch, Scotland: A New History (London: Random House, 2011),
ISBN 1446475638, p. 80.
^ Webster, Medieval Scotland, pp. 29–37.
^ R. R. Davies, The First English Empire: Power and Identities in the
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^ W. P. L. Thomson, The New History of
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^ a b A. Macquarrie, Medieval Scotland: Kinship and Nation (Thrupp:
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^ A. Grant and K. J. Stringer, eds, Uniting the Kingdom?: the Making
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^ a b P. J. Bawcutt and J. H. Williams, A Companion to Medieval
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^ J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625
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^ G. Menzies The Scottish Nation (Edinburgh:
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Edinburgh University
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^ A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, The
Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2012), ISBN 0191624330, p. 188.
^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 120–33.
^ Thomas, "The Renaissance", p. 200.
^ D. L. Smith, A History of the Modern British Isles, 1603–1707: The
Double Crown (Wiley-Blackwell, 1998), ISBN 0631194029, ch. 2.
^ J. D. Mackie, B. Lenman and G. Parker, A History of Scotland
(London: Penguin, 1991), ISBN 0140136495, pp. 200–06.
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^ a b Mackie, Lenman and Parker, A History of Scotland, pp. 241–45.
^ Mackie, Lenman and Parker, A History of Scotland, pp. 283–84.
^ R. Mitchison, A History of
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^ Webster, Medieval Scotland, pp. 45–7.
^ P. G. B. McNeill and Hector L. MacQueen, eds, Atlas of Scottish
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^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 14–15.
^ Mackie, Lenman and Parker, A History of Scotland,
ISBN 0140136495.
^ Thomas, "The Renaissance", pp. 200–02.
^ G. W. S. Barrow, Robert Bruce (Berkeley CA.: University of
California Press, 1965), pp. 11–12.
^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 22–3.
^ J. Goodacre, The Government of Scotland, 1560–1625 (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2004), ISBN 0199243549, pp. 35 and 130.
^ Goodacre, The Government of Scotland, 1560–1625, pp. 150–1.
^ Mackie, Lenman and Parker, A History of Scotland, p. 287.
^ K. M. Brown and R. J. Tanner, The History of the Scottish Parliament
volume 1: Parliament and Politics, 1235–1560 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 2004), pp. 1–28.
^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, p. 21.
^ Mitchison, A History of Scotland, p. 128.
^ a b McNeill and MacQueen,Atlas of Scottish History to 1707, pp.
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^ R. A. Houston, I. D. Whyte, Scottish Society, 1500–1800
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), ISBN 0521891671,
p. 202.
^ R. Mitchison, Lordship to Patronage,
Scotland
Scotland 1603–1745
(Edinburgh:
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Edinburgh University Press, 1983), ISBN 074860233X,
pp. 80–1.
^ D. E. Thornton, "Communities and kinship", in P. Stafford, ed., A
Companion to the Early Middle Ages: Britain and Ireland, c.500-c.1100
(Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), ISBN 140510628X, pp. 98.
^ Scottish Legal History: A Research Guide, Georgetown Law Library,
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Crown, Lordship and Community, Essays Presented to G. W. S. Barrow
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p. 42.
^ N. Sharples and R. Smith, "Norse settlement in the Western Isles" in
A. Woolf, ed., Scandinavian
Scotland
Scotland – Twenty Years After (St
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^ Reid and Zimmerman, A History of Private Law in Scotland: I, p. 23.
^ Stair, vol. 22, para. 509 (Online) Retrieved 2011-10-26
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^ a b G. W. S. Barrow, The Kingdom of the Scots (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 2003), pp. 69–82.
^ D. H. S. Sellar, "Gaelic Laws and Institutions", in M. Lynch, ed.,
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^ Reid and Zimmerman, A History of Private Law in Scotland: I, p. 36.
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^ Reid and Zimmerman, A History of Private Law in Scotland: I, p. 56.
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^ Reid and Zimmerman, A History of Private Law in Scotland: I, p. 65.
^ Reid and Zimmerman, A History of Private Law in Scotland: I, p. 66.
^ Reid and Zimmerman, A History of Private Law in Scotland: I, p. 73.
^ Reid and Zimmerman, A History of Private Law in Scotland: I, p. 68.
^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 24–5.
^ Anne-Marie Kilday, Women and Violent Crime in Enlightenment Scotland
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Oxford University Press, 1997), ISBN 0198605145, p. 225.
^ a b J. Chown, A History of Money: From AD 800 (London: Routledge,
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^ a b G. Donaldson and R. S. Morpeth, A Dictionary of Scottish History
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^ Mitchison, A History of Scotland, pp. 291–2 and 301-2.
^ M. Rowlinson, "'The Scots hate gold': British identity and paper
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^ a b c C. Harvie, Scotland: a Short History (Oxford: Oxford
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^ Mitchison, A History of Scotland, p. 2.
^ World and Its Peoples (London: Marshall Cavendish),
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^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 39–40.
^ A. G. Ogilvie, Great Britain: Essays in Regional Geography
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^ J. E. A. Dawson,
Scotland
Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh:
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^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, p. 61.
^ E. Gemmill and N. J. Mayhew, Changing Values in Medieval Scotland: a
Study of Prices, Money, and Weights and Measures (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995), ISBN 0521473853, pp. 8–10.
^ Mitchison, A History of Scotland, p. 145.
^ K. J. Cullen, Famine in Scotland: The 'Ill Years' of The 1690s
(Edinburgh:
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Edinburgh University Press, 2010), ISBN 0748638873,
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^ F. M. L. Thompson, The Cambridge Social History of Britain
1750–1950: People and Their Environment (Cambridge: Cambridge
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Britain (London: Continuum, 2000), ISBN 0718500849, p. 238.
^ G. W. S. Barrow, Kingship and Unity:
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Scotland 1000–1306
(Edinburgh:
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Edinburgh University Press, 1989), ISBN 074860104X,
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^ G. Lamb, "The
Orkney
Orkney Tongue" in D. Omand, ed., The
Orkney
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^ A. Jennings and A. Kruse, "One Coast-Three Peoples: Names and
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^ K. J. Stringer, "Reform Monasticism and Celtic Scotland", in E. J.
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Scotland
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^ K. M. Brown, Noble Society in Scotland: Wealth, Family and Culture
from the Reformation to the Revolutions (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
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^ R. A. Houston, Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity:
Illiteracy and Society in
Scotland
Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), ISBN 0521890888,
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^ a b c Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 60–7.
^ J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of
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Edinburgh
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^ J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of
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^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, p. 40.
^ Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community, pp. 192–3.
^ O. Clancy, "The Scottish provenance of the ‘Nennian’ recension
of Historia Brittonum and the Lebor Bretnach " in: S. Taylor (ed.),
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^ C. Evans, "The Celtic Church in Anglo-Saxon times", in J. D. Woods,
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^ a b c d Webster, Medieval Scotland, pp. 124–5.
^ Webster, Medieval Scotland, p. 119.
^ Houston, Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity, p. 5.
^ M. Todd, The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern
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^ Houston, Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity, pp. 63–8.
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^ a b Bartram, Graham (2001), "The Story of Scotland's Flags" (PDF),
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