Keith Park

Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Rodney Park, (15 June 1892 – 6 February 1975) was a New Zealand-born officer of the Royal Air Force (RAF). During the Second World War, his leadership of the RAF's No. 11 Group was pivotal to the Luftwaffe's defeat in the Battle of Britain.

Born in Thames, Park was a mariner when he enlisted in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force for service in the First World War. Posted to the artillery, he fought in the Gallipoli campaign, partway through which he transferred to the British Army. On the Western Front, he was present for the Battle of the Somme and was injured. He obtained another transfer, this time to the Royal Flying Corps. Once his flight training was completed, he served as an instructor before being posted to serve with No. 48 Squadron on the Western Front. He became a flying ace, achieving a number of aerial victories and eventually becoming commander of the squadron.

In the postwar period, he served with the RAF in a series of command and staff postings, including a period as air attaché in South America. By the late 1930s, he was serving in Fighter Command, as Air Marshal Hugh Dowding's senior air staff officer. The two worked together to devise aerial tactics and management strategies for the aerial defence of the United Kingdom. Soon after the outbreak of the Second World War, he was placed in command of No. 11 Group, responsible for the defence of South East England and London. Due to the strategic significance and geographic location concerning the Luftwaffe, Park’s No. 11 Group bore the brunt of the German aerial assault during the Battle of Britain. His careful management of his fighter aircraft and pilots ensured that Britain retained air superiority along the English Channel.

Relieved of command after the Battle of Britain, Park served in a training role before being posted to the Middle East as Air Officer Commanding, Egypt in late 1941. Midway through the following year, he took charge of the aerial defences of Malta, then under heavy attack from the Luftwaffe and the ''Regia Aeronautica'' (Italian Air Force). When the siege was lifted he successfully transitioned Malta's RAF forces from a defensive role into an offensive footing in preparation for the Allied invasion of Sicily. From 1944, he held senior roles in the Middle East and in British India. He retired from the RAF in 1946 as air chief marshal. Returning to New Zealand, he worked in the aviation industry for a British aircraft manufacturer and then became involved in local body politics in Auckland. He died in February 1975 due to heart problems.

Early life

Born in Thames, New Zealand, on 15 June 1892, Keith Rodney Park was the third son and ninth of ten children born to Professor James Livingstone Park from Scotland, who was a geologist and director of the Thames School of Mines, and his wife, New Zealand native Frances Rogers. Park was schooled at King's College in Auckland until 1905. The following year he attended Otago Boys' High School in Dunedin, to where his father had moved the family following his appointment as a lecturer in mining at the University of Otago. By this time Park's parents had separated, his mother moving to Australia and leaving the children in the care of their father.

At Otago Boys' High, Park joined the school's Cadet Corps. Once Park completed his education, he found employment at the Union Steam Ship Company. He had always enjoyed boats and within the Park family was known as 'Skipper'. In his new job, he went to sea as a purser aboard collier and passenger steamships, initially sailing on vessels making their way along the coast but later he worked on passenger vessels travelling to Australia and islands in the Pacific. He also served as a Territorial soldier in the New Zealand Field Artillery, from March 1911 to November 1913.

First World War

Soon after outbreak of the First World War, Park was given permission from his employers to leave the company and join the war effort. Despite his maritime experience, he enlisted in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) on 14 December 1914 and was posted to the Field Artillery. He was promoted to corporal in early February 1915. He departed New Zealand the same month as part of the third draft of reinforcements for the NZEF, destined for the Middle East. On arrival, he was posted to the 4th Howitzer Battery, under the command of Major Norrie Falla.

In early April 1915, military planners in London decided that the NZEF would be part of the Allied forces that would open up a new front in the Middle East, by landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula. Park participated in the Landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April, going ashore at Anzac Cove that evening or early the following morning with his battery. The 4th Howitzer Battery was the only such unit at Anzac Cove but had limited ammunition and initially was unable to expend more than a few rounds a day. When not engaged in artillery fire, Park would act as a messenger. In the trench warfare that followed, Park's achievements were recognised and in July he gained a commission as second lieutenant. He commanded an artillery battery during the August offensive. Afterwards Park took the unusual decision to transfer from the NZEF to the British Army, joining the Royal Horse and Field Artillery.

Attached to the 29th Division as a temporary second lieutenant, Park was posted to No. 10 Battery, of the 147th Brigade, at Helles. He was commander of a 12-pounder naval gun, which was often subject to Turkish counter-fire. He and the rest of his battery was evacuated from Gallipoli to Egypt in January 1916, after the decision was made to abandon the Allied positions there. The battle had left its mark on him both physically and mentally, though later on in life he would remember it with nostalgia. He particularly admired the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps commander, Sir William Birdwood, whose leadership style and attention to detail would be a model for Park in his later career.

In March Park's battery, along with the rest of the 29th Division, was shipped to the Western Front and assigned to a sector along the Somme. Two months later, Park's rank was made substantive. By this time he had an interest in aviation; while in Egypt while preparing for the move to France, he had requested a flight so that he could assess its suitability to help in observations but was told that aerial reconnaissance was a waste of time. Now, prior to the Battle of the Somme, he learned how useful aircraft could be in a military role, getting a taste of flight by being taken aloft to check his battery's camouflage. He reported back on the ready manner in which the British guns could be detected. During the battle itself, which commenced on 1 July, the artillery was heavily engaged. On 21 October, while trying to withdraw an unserviceable gun for repair, Park was blown off his horse by a German shell. Wounded, he was evacuated to England and medically certified "unfit for active service," which technically meant he was unfit to ride a horse. After a brief remission recovering from his wounds, recuperating and doing training duties at Woolwich Depot, he joined the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) in December. He had been trying for some time to obtain a transfer but the senior officers in the 29th Division would not allow this for its personnel serving in France; in later years Park saw his wounding as being particularly fortuitous for his future military career.

Royal Flying Corps

Once in the RFC, Park's training commenced at Reading, for a course at the School of Military Aeronautics. Much of this initial training involved military basics, such as drill, and theoretical matters, like Morse code. His flight instruction did not commence until he went to Netheravon where, after flying an Avro 504K with an instructor, he soled on a Maurice Farman MF11 Shorthorn. The RFC still lacked sophistication in its flight training, and many pilots were sent to France with barely more than basic skills in flying. Park, having accumulated over 20 hours solo and 30 hours flying in total, thus qualifying for his wings, was posted to Rendcomb on instructing duties in March 1917.

At Rendcomb, Park accumulated over 100 hours more flying time before, in June, he was posted to France. The amount of time he had accumulated in the air at this stage enhanced his survival prospects in aerial combat. On reporting to RFC headquarters in Boulogne, he was advised that he was to be a bomber pilot and sent to a depot pool of pilots at Saint-Omer. This was despite his specialisation in fighter aircraft. After some days without an assignment, he contacted No. 48 Squadron at La Bellevue; this resulted in Park's posting to that squadron on 7 July.

Service with No. 48 Squadron

Shortly after Park's arrival at No. 48 Squadron, it was moved to Frontier Aerodrome just east of Dunkirk. It was equipped with the new Bristol Fighter, a two-seat biplane fighter and reconnaissance aircraft, and carried out patrols, reconnaissance flights and escorted bombers attacking German aerodromes in Belgium. He had his first engagement with an enemy fighter on 24 July, when he was engaged by three Albatros D.III scout aircraft near Middelkerke. He and his observer, operating a Lewis gun, successfully drove off the attackers. When the Germans started using their heavy bombers to attack London and other targets in England during the summer, the squadron was tasked with interception duties. However, Park never saw the enemy on these flights. He achieved his first aerial victory on 17 August, shooting down a German aircraft and causing the destruction of three others, with Arthur Noss as his observer. For his exploits, the commander of 4th Brigade, Brigadier-General John Becke, recommended Park and Noss for the Military Cross (MC). This was duly awarded, the published citation for Park's MC reading:

Park had more success on 21 August, driving one Albatros scout out of control and shooting down another. On 2 September, he fired upon another Albatros scout near Diksmuide, seeing it go down out of control. He and his observer shot down Hauptmann Otto Hartmann, the commander of '' Jagdstaffel 28'' on 3 September. Two days later a pilot of '' Jasta Boelcke'', Franz Pernet, the stepson of General Erich Ludendorff, was killed by Park and his observer, and this was followed by the destruction of a DFW C.V reconnaissance aircraft over the sea. He was promoted to temporary captain on 11 September. He shot down two more German aircraft on 15 September. To recognise Park's run of success, which by this time amounted to having destroyed seven German aircraft and damaging at least five others, Becke recommended him for the Distinguished Service Order. The senior officer of the RFC in France, Major-General Hugh Trenchard, downgraded this to a Bar to his MC on the basis this was sufficient reward. The published citation read:

Soon afterwards, No. 48 Squadron moved to the Arras sector for a rest, having incurred a number of casualties in the previous weeks. There, Park, now a flight leader, concentrated on preparing his command, which contained many inexperienced replacement pilots, for aerial combat. It resumed operations but it was now involved in less dangerous work, and casualties were light. On 3 January 1918, Park and his observer were flying near Ramicourt on a photo reconnaissance when they were engaged by several German Albatros fighters. Park was able to send one Albatros out of control but his observer's gun jammed, increasing the difficulty of fending off the remainder. Park eventually evaded them, although his engine was damaged by machine gun fire and he force landed behind British lines. The squadron's most successful pilot over the August–September period, he was subsequently sent to England for a rest. This involved instructing Canadian trainee fighter pilots at Hooton Park.

Squadron command

Following the commencement of the German spring offensive in late March 1918, Park returned to France as a major to take command of No. 48 Squadron. At the time he joined the squadron, he was the only surviving pilot from its 1917 ranks. The first few days of his tenure were marked by a number of relocations, as the squadron repeatedly retreated to new sites to stay ahead of the advancing Germans. It eventually settled in at Bertangles, where it would remain for some time. Park was well respected by his men although he tended not form close relationships with those under his command.

The squadron was carrying out low level attacks on German troops and positions, in addition to its reconnaissance work. The Bristol fighter was poorly suited for the former role, having limited maneuverability at low altitude. At one point in the later stages of the German advance, the squadron was reduced to three operational aircraft, the rest having been damaged or destroyed by ground fire.

By November, the strain of command had all but exhausted Park. On 9 November, in a fatigued state, he crashed a Bristol during a test. Two days later, the war ended. He and his observers were credited with 11 aerial victories.

Interwar period

Immediately after the war, on 25 November, Park married Dorothy Parish at Christ Church in Lancaster Gate. Thoughts now turned to his postwar career. Having applied for a permanent commission in the Royal Air Force (RAF) earlier in the year, he had heard nothing despite his application having the support of his wing commander. For the time being, he was posted to command of No. 54 Training Depot at Fairlop, but was deemed fit only for light flying and ground duties. In February 1919 he applied again for a permanent commission in the RAF. In addition, the same month his father made an application to the Minister of Defence in New Zealand on Park's behalf for a potential role in the military aviation service that was proposed to be formed for the country's defence. However, this proved to be fruitless as a firm decision regarding the service was not made. In the meantime Park also sought employment with a New Zealand firm, the Canterbury Aviation Company which had been formed by Henry Wigram, a pioneer of commercial aviation in the country. However, Park was overlooked for the role.

Park went to London Colney to command the training depot there and also went on a course at the No. 2 School of Navigation and Bomb Dropping. Then, together with a Captain Stewart, in late April he flew a Handley Page 0/400 twin-engined bomber on a circuit of the British Isles, completing the flight in 28 hours, 30 minutes. It was the second such flight of its type, designed to foster public awareness of the RAF. The following month, Park had an adverse medical examination and was deemed to be unfit for further service, notwithstanding the record flight he had just made. He went on leave for rest and two months later sought a re-examination. This graded him fit for ground duties although he was still not able to fly. In the meantime, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross.

Park was finally granted his permanent commission in September, with effect from 1 August, with the rank of flight lieutenant. He was appointed as commander of a store of Handley Page aircraft at Hawkinge. It was not a role that he was satisfied with and he was pleased when in early 1920, he was posted to the newly reformed No. 25 Squadron as a flight commander. At the time, it was the only fighter squadron based in the United Kingdom. Later in the year he took up duties as the commander of the School of Technical Training, based at Manston. During his time there he was promoted to squadron leader. His health also improved. In April 1922 he was one of twenty officers selected to attend the newly formed RAF Staff College at Andover. He spent a year here, along with other notable students, including Sholto Douglas, with whom he had clashed the previous year over arrangements for flight demonstrations at an air show, and Arthur Portal.

Staff officer

In March 1923, Park's health was sufficiently restored that he was returned to flight duties and two months later he was posted to Egypt on technical duties. Based at Aboukir, he was accompanied by his wife and the couple's young son. Later in the year, he transferred to Cairo, working as a technical staff officer at the headquarters of RAF Middle East. In October 1924 he was switched to air staff duties. He became well respected by his commander, Oliver Swann, who advocated for him in 1925 when concerns were raised regarding Park's health. In June 1926, Park and his family, which now included a second son, returned to England. A medical examination at this time graded him as fit for duty.

At the behest of an acquaintance, Air Commodore Felton Holt, Park was posted to the Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) in August. He was to serve on the staff of the commander of the ADGB, Air Marshal Sir John Salmond, with responsibility for 'Operations, Intelligence Mobilization and Combined Training'. The ADGB, based at Uxbridge, was tasked with the aerial defence of the United Kingdom, and Park was given considerable latitude in developing his role. After 15 months with the ADGB, Park was given a squadron command; he proceeded to Duxford to lead No. 111 Squadron. A fighter squadron, it operated the Armstrong Whitworth Siskin and Park ensured that it worked extensively, routinely recording high flying hours during his tenure in command. While commanding the squadron, he was involved in one incident on 7 February 1928, he crashed a Siskin while landing at night. In the ensuing investigation, he conceded his night vision was flawed and thereafter did not fly at night.

Promoted to wing commander on 1 January 1929, he was posted back to Uxbridge on staff duties two months later. For two years running he helped in the organisation of the air pageants at Hendon, which drew over 100,000 spectators, and he was also involved in the development of systems for controlling the operations of fighter aircraft defending the United Kingdom from aerial attacks. His senior officer at this time was Air Vice Marshal Hugh Dowding. In January 1931, Park was given command of the RAF station at Northolt, his tenure lasting for 18 months. He then became the chief instructor at the Oxford University Air Squadron (OUAS). A prestigious post, Park was responsible for 75 students, among them Archibald Hope, who later commanded No. 601 Squadron. Hope regarded Park as a good commander of the OUAS as did a junior instructor, the future flying ace Tom Gleave. Many of the students at OUSA, encouraged by Park, would go on to join the RAF. Park was subsequently awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree by Oxford University in recognition of his services.

South America

In November 1934, Park was dispatched to Buenos Aires to serve as the Air Attaché for South America. A key part of his role was to facilitate local interest in British aircraft. He had been given notice of his appointment some months prior, which afforded him time to learn Spanish. He was accompanied by his wife but their two children remained in England, attending boarding schools. His wife, Dol, had longstanding connections to Argentina, as members of her family had held diplomatic postings in the country. Soon after his arrival he was promoted to group captain. He travelled throughout the continent, visiting aircraft factories and air bases, and promoting British aircraft, military and civilian. It was tough work since American aircraft manufacturers dominated the scene and he was not helped by the Air Ministry's commitment to expanding the RAF in preference to aircraft sales to foreign countries. Nonetheless, the skills he learnt in the role, ranging from mixing with military personnel of all ranks to rapid inspections of air bases, would prove beneficial in the future.

Fighter Command

Park was appointed Air Aide-de-Camp to King George VI in early 1937. By this time, he was back in the United Kingdom and attending the Imperial Defence College, which was close to Buckingham Palace. The course at the Imperial Defence College was designed to enhance the knowledge of its students, mostly senior officers from the British armed forces, in staff, diplomacy and political matters. Park became known for being a questioning student, and demanding of guest lecturers. At the end of the year, he became commander of the RAF station at Tangmere, which was home to two fighter squadrons plus a bomber unit. Then in April 1938, he took ill with streptococcal pharyngitis; this meant that he did not take up his next posting in Palestine, which instead went to Arthur Harris, future leader of Bomber Command. Park, after a period of rest, then took the role that had been intended for Harris: Senior Air Staff Officer (SASO) to Hugh Dowding, the commander of Fighter Command, which had been formed in July 1936, following the splitting up of the ADGB.

Park took up his new appointment in May, and this coincided with a promotion to air commodore. He was now based at Bentley Priory, second-in-command to Dowding. The two worked well together as they worked towards improving the operational efficiency of Fighter Command and the integration of radio direction finding (RDF) techniques into the tactical handling of fighters to counter incoming bombers. One notable improvement made by Park in the control of RAF fighters over the southeast of England was better vetting of data that made it to the plotting tables on which movement of both friendly and enemy aircraft were shown. Dowding had been resistant to Park's suggestion to filter out some data but he was then convinced of its merits when Park did unauthorised test trials and showed the results to Dowding. The plotting tables, now less cluttered, made for more effective decision making.

With the blessing of Dowding, Park also worked on an air tactics manual for Fighter Command. As part of this he favoured the replacement of the rifle calibre machine guns that equipped the Hurricane and Spitfire with heavy machine guns, but was overruled. He was also against the use of the conventional 'Vic' formation used by the RAF, in which three fighter aircraft flew in a V-formation, on the basis that these were not suited for monoplanes and wanted to explore alternatives. Despite his best efforts the Air Ministry maintained its existing approach to fighter tactics.

Second World War

Following the outbreak of the Second World War, Park supported Dowding in his efforts to retain as many fighter aircraft as possible for the aerial defence of the United Kingdom. This was despite the requests for fighter squadrons to support the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) dispatched to France shortly after the commencement of hostilities. During the Phoney War, there was great urgency in developing and implementing tactics for the defence of British airspace, through coordination of data collected from RDF stations, the sightings of the Observer Corps, and the fighters themselves.

Promoted to the rank of air vice marshal, Park took command of No. 11 Group RAF, responsible for the fighter defence of London and southeast England, on 13 April 1940. He had only just recovered from an emergency appendectomy. Park's appointment affronted Air Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, the commander of neighbouring No. 12 Group, which covered the Midlands. However, Park had greater experience with fighters, with most of Leigh-Mallory's career, aside from the three years that he had spent in charge of No. 12 Group, spent in a training role. There were already tensions between Park and Leigh-Mallory; in exercises carried out in the summer of 1939, No. 12 Group had not performed as expected and Park, on behalf of Dowding, raised concerns in this respect.

Dunkirk

At the time, Park took command of No. 11 Group, it was perceived that Leigh-Mallory's No. 12 Group would bear the brunt of the German bombing campaign since it was this area of the British Isles that was closest to Germany. However, the subsequent invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May changed the threat level for the southeast of England. By 24 May the majority of the BEF along with French and Belgian troops had been pushed back and became encircled at Dunkirk. During the subsequent Dunkirk evacuation, codenamed Operation Dynamo, No. 11 Group provided aerial cover under Park's direction. The RAF fighters were disadvantaged, having to operate over from their bases in the southeast of England and without the benefit of radar coverage. At best, they had about 40 minutes of flying time over Dunkirk.

Park operated patrol lines over Dunkirk on 27 May, the first day of the evacuation, but the RAF fighters were heavily outnumbered. They were unable to prevent the bombing of Dunkirk itself, but were able to provide some limited protection of the moles and ships. The following day, under orders from the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS), Air Chief Marshal Cyril Newall, fighters attempted to provide continuous coverage throughout the day but were unable to do so due to their relatively limited numbers. Park advocated for the usage of at least two squadrons at a time in stronger patrols rather than the continuous coverage. This was based on his own observations from flying his personal Hurricane over Dunkirk. His approach was put into effect the next day, sometimes using as many four squadrons, with greater intervals between patrols. Although there was some pressure from Newall and Churchill for a stronger RAF presence over the beachhead, Dowding sheltered Park from this influence and left him to his work. In the later stages of Operation Dynamo, which ended on 4 June, weather and the pressure from the advancing Germans forced the evacuation efforts to be concentrated on the times around dawn and dusk, and Park's fighters were able to operate more effectively.

Throughout this time, Park not only flew his Hurricane to Dunkirk to see the situation for himself, but he also visited airfields and met with RAF personnel, both pilots and groundcrew. He was very recognisable, wearing white overalls when flying. This helped foster his reputation within No. 11 Group. He also maintained a desire to switch to the offensive; just two weeks after Dunkirk, he sought to have some Hurricane squadrons refitted as fighter-bombers and used along with Bristol Blenheims, to make nighttime attack on the German airfields in France. Dowding did not approve.

Battle of Britain

Being responsible for the south-eastern England area, including London, No. 11 Group faced the majority of the Luftwaffe's air strength, at least 1,000 bombers and 400 fighters, during the Battle of Britain. To counter this, at the start of the battle Park had at his disposal 350 fighters across 22 fighter squadrons and just over 550 pilots. Under Park's direction, these fighter squadrons were scrambled against incoming German bombers. Using the plotting tables at his headquarters at Uxbridge, he had to assess which raids were a real threat and which were diversionary in nature, intended to draw away RAF fighters. Timing was important; incoming raids needed to be intercepted before reaching their targets. An understanding of what aircraft were available was also critical. He needed to ensure that there were as many as possible in the air to counter the German bombers but also to avoid having too many on the ground being refueled and rearmed. Even with the benefit of radar, Park was still disadvantaged. He usually had only around 20 minutes from when radar detected the buildup of the incoming bombers over the Pas de Calais or Cotentin regions to scramble his squadrons and have them at a suitable height for interception.

At the start of the Battle of Britain, generally deemed by British historians to be 10 July (German sources usually cite a date in August), the Luftwaffe's initial focus was to gain air superiority over the English Channel, before moving to strike targets inland of the coastline. Its targets were shipping convoys moving through the Channel as well as the ports in the south of England. It was not until 1 August, when Adolf Hitler ordered the invasion of Britain, that the Luftwaffe escalated its aerial operations. At this time, the coastal radar stations were targeted, as well as airfields and aircraft manufacturing facilities. This placed further pressure on Park and how he dispersed his fighter squadrons.

On 16 August, following a visit to Park's headquarters at Uxbridge, Winston Churchill made a speech in which he recited one of his most famous lines, referring to RAF fighter pilots: "Never in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few". Churchill, who thought well of Park, made another visit to Uxbridge the following month, on 15 September. His visit coincided with the Luftwaffe's greatest daytime raid on England. Churchill noted the large numbers of incoming German aircraft but was reassured with Park's calm reply that RAF forces would meet them. He put up all his aircraft, leaving no reserve and they were joined by 60 fighters from No. 12 Group. It was the first time that the RAF and the Luftwaffe would meet in nearly equal numbers. The Luftwaffe's attack was a significant failure and an even larger raid was mounted later in the afternoon and was also unsuccessful. The date of 15 September subsequently became known as Battle of Britain Day.

By this time, the Luftwaffe had switched from attacking the RAF airfields to London itself. The Germans believed that Fighter Command was largely exhausted but the change in tactics was welcomed as both Park and Dowding recognised that it would be a relief for their pilots. Park later remarked to Alan Mitchell, a New Zealand journalist: "The Hun lost the Battle of Britain when he switched from bombing my fighter-stations to bombing London...".

Big Wings controversy

As the Battle of Britain progressed, Park had increasing concerns about Leigh-Mallory's handling of No. 12 Group. Oftentimes, Park's airfields were left exposed to attack while his squadrons were in the air. Requests to No. 12 Group for aerial cover were often inadequately responded to. This was due to Leigh-Mallory encouraging the use of "Big Wings" in his group; this involved the assembling of three or more squadrons in a single formation before they were directed onto approaching German bombers. By the time the Big Wing was assembled, often Park's undefended airfields had already been attacked and the German bombers on their way back to their bases in France. Leigh-Mallory believed that this was justified as the assembled Big Wing would theoretically inflict significant losses on the departing bombers.

Park was not opposed to the use of squadrons en masse and had even used comparable tactics while defending the evacuation of the beaches at Dunkirk a few months previously. However, he recognised that the short time between the detection of the approaching German bombers and them reaching their targets in southeast England meant that Big Wings were not practical. Park preferred greater control over individual squadrons. This allowed him to be more responsive to changes in tactics by the Luftwaffe which might, for example, send one group of bombers to a certain target as a diversion to draw in RAF fighters while another group of bombers attacked the actual target.

A report that Leigh-Mallory had sent to the Air Ministry, which overinflated claims made by No. 12 Group when operating the "Big Wing", had found a receptive audience at senior levels of the RAF. Park sent his own report on recent operations during the August-September period, which included critical comments on the Air Ministry's efforts in repairing damaged airfields. Underlying this was increasing tensions between Dowding and the Air Ministry over Fighter Command's ability to deal with the Luftwaffe's night bombing campaign. Sholto Douglas, the deputy CAS, felt Dowding was inadequately dealing with the situation.

On 17 October, Dowding and Park attended a meeting, chaired by Douglas, to discuss fighter tactics at the Air Ministry in London. Senior RAF personnel were present, including Leigh-Mallory, but so was the relatively junior Squadron Leader Douglas Bader, a firm advocate for the "Big Wing". Neither Park nor Dowding had expected this nor thought to invite an officer with a contrary front-line experience. Park found himself having to justify his interception tactics and explain why the "Big Wing" was not an appropriate tactic for his area of operations. Leigh-Mallory countered, stating his desire to help No. 11 Group and promising good response times for assembly of the Big Wing. In the absence of any protest from Dowding, Douglas approved of the use of Big Wings over No. 11 Group.

Relief

On 7 December, Park was formally replaced as commander of No. 11 Group, his successor being Leigh-Mallory. The decision had been made late the previous month. Officially, this was because Park needed a rest from the stress of the past several months. However, Park believed his relief was due to the dispute with Leigh-Mallory. Historian John Ray, in his account of Dowding's handling of the Battle of Britain argues that Park was seen at the Air Ministry as being closely aligned with Dowding, implementing the latter's defensive scheme. Dowding, already overdue for his retirement, had been released from his post on 17 November and once he went, Park had to follow to enable a fresh start at Fighter Command. Douglas took over Fighter Command and Leigh-Mallory No. 11 Group.

On learning of Park's impending departure from No. 11 Group, Air Vice Marshal Richard Saul, who led No. 13 Group, wrote to Park and noted "the magnificent achievements of your group in the past six months; they have borne the brunt of the war, and undoubtedly saved England". Park himself felt that Saul should have taken over No. 11 Group instead of Leigh-Mallory, on the basis the former was much more familiar with the various RAF stations in the area. The news of Park's dismissal was met with dismay amongst his command. Wing Commander Victor Beamish wrote to Park, advising that the regret at his departure was across all ranks. According to Park, on his final day at No. 11 Group, he had to formally brief Leigh-Mallory's SASO rather Leigh-Mallory himself, who had not attended.

Shortly after his relief, on 17 December it was publicly announced that Park had been appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath. Published in ''The London Gazette'', a statement said the award was "in recognition of distinguished services rendered in recent operations". Despite this reward, Park was angry at his treatment by the Air Ministry and his opinion for the reason for his relief was reinforced by comments from colleagues that unofficial reports had been made about Park's poor relationship with Leigh-Mallory. Late the following year he wrote to Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal, the current CAS who had made the decision to replace Park with Leigh-Mallory, arguing his case. Portal promptly replied with assurances that his decision had nothing to do with Leigh-Mallory and was simply a matter of Park's health. Churchill was angered at the treatment of Park, and Dowding, by the Air Ministry's publication in March 1941 of a pamphlet on the Battle of Britain, in which neither officer was mentioned. A subsequent republication of the pamphlet, in an illustrated form, remedied this omission.

Training Command

Declining an assignment to the Air Ministry, Park was posted to Training Command, becoming commander of No. 23 Group. His command, centered on RAF South Cerney, encompassed seven service flying training schools, the Central Flying School at Upavon and the School of Air Navigation, at St Athan. It was later expanded with the addition of the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment and the Blind Approach Development Unit, both at RAF Boscombe Down. When he arrived at his command on 27 December, he immediately noted deficiencies in its procedures as it had not moved to a wartime footing. There were personnel within No. 23 Group who were quite unaware of the urgent need for trained pilots during the Battle of Britain.

Park moved immediately to remedy the situation. As he had at No. 11 Group, Park regularly flew himself to the various stations of his command. Within a month of his arrival, he had visited each unit under his command at least once, seeing for himself their state of readiness. He improved operational efficiencies, introduced new equipment and modernised aerodromes. At times, there was an embedded cultural resistance within Training Command for change which he had to overcome.

By the end of 1941, overseas training establishments were coming on steam and Park was looking ahead to a potential return to frontline duties. In December, he was given a posting to Iraq as Air Officer, Commanding (AOC). However, within a matter of days, this was changed, and he instead proceeded to Egypt to become AOC there. In his new role, he was responsible for the aerial defence of the Nile Delta region, duties that were similar to what he performed as commander of No. 11 Group although he now had night fighters under his control. The Luftwaffe, flying from bases in the Greek islands, became more aggressive in its aerial operations against targets in Egypt which threatened the buildup of Allied forces in the region. The efficiency and coordination of Egypt's defences were much improved by Park and better able to deal with incoming bombing raids.

Malta

On 8 July 1942, Park relinquished command in Egypt and went to Malta on 14 July as a replacement for Hugh Lloyd, the RAF commander on the besieged island. It was felt that his experience of fighter defence operations was needed. Arriving by flying boat, he landed in the midst of a raid although Lloyd had specifically requested he circle the harbour until it had passed. Lloyd met Park and admonished him for taking an unnecessary risk.

Park abandoned the defensive approach taken by Lloyd, in which the island's fighters took off, circled behind the approaching enemy bombers and engaged them over Malta. Park, having plenty of Spitfires on hand, sought to intercept and break up the German and Italian bomber formations before they reached Malta. One squadron would endeavour to engage the fighters providing high cover for the bombers, another would deal with the closer escorting fighters and the third would seek out the bombers directly. Using these tactics, similar what had been employed by his No. 11 Group during the Battle of Britain, Park believed that it would be more likely that the enemy would be shot down or abort their objectives. His forces began implementing what Park called his ''Forward Interception Plan'' on 25 July. It was immediately successful, for within a week, daylight raids had ceased. The Axis response was to send in fighter sweeps at even higher altitudes to gain the tactical advantage. Park retaliated by ordering his fighters to climb no higher than . This conceded a considerable height advantage to the enemy fighters, but forced them to engage the Spitfires at altitudes more suitable for the latter.

By September the Axis's aerial operations against Malta were on the decline and the British regained air superiority over the island. Shortly, RAF bomber and torpedo squadrons returned to Malta in anticipation of offensive operations against German forces in North Africa. Park dispatched Hurricane fighter bombers, fitted with extra fuel tanks, to attack enemy supply lines as far away as Egypt. Vickers Wellington medium bombers and Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers attacked ports, shipping and airfields, disrupting the Axis supply routes. In October, the Axis resumed its bomber offensive against the island but this was more effectively resisted using Park's tactics although some bombers still managed to attack some targets on Malta.

With supplies more regularly getting through to Malta, offensive operations in support of the Allied campaign in North Africa increased under Park's direction. More bombers arrived and these attacked targets in Algeria ahead of Operation Torch and, later on, in Tunisia. There were also sorties against targets in Sicily and Sardinia. On 27 November, Park's appointment as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire was announced. This was "in recognition of distinguished services in the campaign in the Middle East". At times his relations with senior officials on Malta was testy; for example, Vice Admiral Power described Park as "unsatisfactory to deal with". However Park's work was also complimented, with both the American General Dwight Eisenhower and British General Bernard Montgomery appreciative of the RAF's operations from Malta in support of their ground forces in North Africa.

The operations of the RAF forces in Malta against Sicily became increasingly important into 1943; the Italian island was a major departure point for shipping taking supplies to the Axis forces in Tunisia. By the end of May, Park had 600 modern aircraft under his control, three times what he had at the start of the year. Additionally, the RAF facilities on Malta had undergone significant expansion in anticipation of the island serving as a major airbase in support of an Allied offensive against Italy. This began with the invasion of Sicily on 10 July, a campaign which lasted less than six weeks. Prior to its commencement, Park arranged the construction of a control room at Malta. From here, he controlled the aerial operations of the aircraft under his command, which amounted to 40 squadrons based at Malta, Gozo and Pantelleria. In September, Park went to London on leave and while there, agitated for a new posting. Portal, still the CAS, thought that Park could become head of the Northwest African Tactical Air Force, replacing another New Zealander, Arthur Coningham. However, Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder, commander of Mediterranean Air Command, preferred another candidate. Park was then slated to go to India as the air officer in charge of administration. However, when the proposed appointment went to Winston Churchill for approval, he preferred Park remain where he was for the time being.

Middle East

In January 1944, Park was promoted to the rank of air marshal and was appointed air officer commander-in-chief of Middle East Command. This appointment was on Tedder's recommendation and Park arrived in Cairo on 6 January to commence his work. His new posting was subordinate to the RAF command structure for the Mediterranean and Middle East, which was led by Air Marshal John Slessor. Although Park's appointment was quickly criticised by Slessor, on the grounds that the RAF would lose influence in the region to the British Army, little weight was placed on his views as he was known to be very opinionated on matters that he often knew little about. Both Portal and Tedder maintained their confidence in Park, as did Churchill. Park's duties in Cairo extended to the supervision of aerial operations in the eastern portion of the Mediterranean, as well as the Indian Ocean. He was also responsible for the training of RAF personnel in Egypt, Cyprus, Palestine and South Africa.

Partway through the year, Park was considered by the Australian government to command the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), because of the rivalry between its nominal head, Chief of the Air Staff Air Vice Marshal George Jones and his deputy, the operational head, Air Vice Marshal William Bostock. The Australian Prime Minister, John Curtin, discussed the matter with both Winston Churchill and Portal in August, but to no avail. Additionally, General Douglas MacArthur, the commander of the South West Pacific Area, said it was too late in the war to change.

Far East

In the New Year Honours, announced on 1 January 1945, Park was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB). Soon afterwards, Park was appointed Allied Air Commander, South-East Asia Command (ACSEAC). This was a sought after posting, with Slessor agitating for the appointment. However Portal deemed that Park was better suited for the role, due to his operational experience. After he was invested with his KCB at Buckingham Palace by King George VI on 14 February, he and his wife departed the United Kingdom for Calcutta to take up his post, replacing Guy Garrod.

Once in his new command, one of his tasks was ensuring the aerial provision of General William Slim's 14th Army, which was advancing through Burma onto Rangoon at the time. Much of his aircraft would be engaged in dropping over 1,900 tons of supplies on a daily basis to the advancing British troops for several weeks. One concern for Park during this time was a lack of urgency by the British Army to repair airfields captured by the 14th Army as it moved towards Rangoon. Bringing these into service would have allowed him to shorten the flight times for the supply aircraft flying from their bases in India. It often would take several weeks after their capture before the airfields were satisfactory to fly from, a delay which Park believed would have been much greater if not for his urging. He also maintained his longstanding practice of visiting the various RAF stations of his command, despite its wide range, which extended from Kandy, where he was initially based until shifting to Singapore, northwest to Quetta, south to the Cocos Islands and Hong Kong to the northeast.

On 12 September, Park, as ACSEAC, was present for the formal surrender of the Japanese forces in the region, the ceremony being held in Singapore. In the aftermath of the Japanese surrender, Park's duties were shifted towards repatriation of around 125,000 Allied internees, both military and civilian, from various prisons in the South East Asia region. To supplement his aviation resources for this work, he impressed Japanese aircraft and personnel into service. There was also the matter of returning British soldiers and airmen to the United Kingdom, which required coordination with Transport Command as well as his own ACSEAC. The rate of return of RAF personnel was of particular concern seeing as a proportion were required to fly and maintain the transports; this meant that more jobs in the civilian sector were going to former soldiers and sailors. Park sought to shorten the term of service to three years for single men, and this came into effect in April 1946.

Postwar service

In late November Park's headquarters was transferred to Singapore, which in the postwar period, was to be developed as an air base. Morale due to the rate of repatriation of RAF personnel continued to be a problem in the early part of the following year, and Park had to speak to several groups of dissatisfied men. Sympathetic to their concerns, he emphasised to his officers the need for pastoral care of the men under their command. Despite this, there were several instances of RAF personnel refusing to work across SEAC but these involved conscripts which meant Park did not have to treat them as mutineers. In one instance, he blamed the commander of the unit for not ensuring his men's wellbeing.

Some of his time was also spent writing formal dispatches regarding the aerial operations carried out by SEAC. In his early drafts of these he was critical of the British land forces ability to support the ground organisation required for his transport aircraft and also emphasised the importance of the air supply operations to the success achieved in the region. He subsequently toned down his writings in response to feedback from the War Office.

In February 1946, Park looking ahead to his impending replacement as ACSEAC in late April, sought permission for a period of leave in New Zealand, followed by a return to take up his next posting. However Tedder advised that there was no envisaged role for Park in the RAF, with preference being given to younger men. This greatly disappointed Park. For much of April, he was acting Supreme Allied Commander of South-East Asia while Mountbatten was in Australia; this was the most senior command that Park was to hold during his military career. The following month, after a recommendation by Mountbatten, he was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of The Most Honourable Order of the Bath (GCB) "in recognition for distinguished services in South East Asia". He received the insignia of the GCB from King George VI on 16 October.

After a period of illness suffering dysentery, Park and his wife departed Singapore to commence their tour of New Zealand on 26 May.
Park was retired from the RAF with effect from 20 December 1946 and with the rank of air chief marshal. However, he was not entitled to the pension that came with this rank. Despite the advocacy of Tedder, Mountbatten and Slessor, the Treasury would not pay the full amount and he instead received an amount equivalent to that due to an air marshal, plus a third of the difference between this and the pension due to an air chief marshal. He was also recognised by the United States for his work during the Second World War, being made a Commander of the American Legion of Merit in 1947.

Later life

Almost immediately after his retirement, Park became a representative of the Hawker Siddley Group, which manufactured military and civilian aircraft.

He was tasked with selling aviation equipment to countries in South America. His previous experience in the region would be beneficial. He met with the president of Argentina, Juan Perón, in early 1947, and a contract was subsequently signed later in the year for 380 Gloster Meteor jet fighters and 30 Avro Lincoln heavy bombers. By May he was back in England but this was short-lived for he and his wife, along with one of their two sons, went to New Zealand. There, based in Auckland, he was Hawker Siddley's Pacific representative.

However, he was largely frustrated in his efforts to sell his employer's aircraft as there was a preference for those made by American manufacturers. He was occasionally critical of the purchasing decisions of the New Zealand government which embarrassed Hawker Siddley. In one case, he noted that while some pilots of the RNZAF still had to make do with antiquated North American P-51D Mustangs and deHavilland Vampires, the air forces of less developed countries were equipped with modern Hawker Hunter jet fighters.

Park was also involved in the establishment of the Auckland International Airport at Māngere. He had already noted the importance of such a facility to the Auckland business community. He had received feedback from Sholto Douglas, now a director of the British Overseas Airways Corporation, that New Zealand's airfields were particularly poor. In 1951, Park was named chairman of the International Airport Committee and for the next few years worked towards obtaining the necessary land and cooperation from both central and local government.

He suffered personal loss during this time; in 1951, his son Ian, a constable with the police force in British Malaya was killed in the line of duty. While Ian's death was upsetting for both parents, Park was better able to move on with life while his wife struggled to come to terms with the loss of her son.

In 1955, the same year that he stepped down from the International Airport Committee, through Park's connections and advocacy with the Air Ministry resulted in the donation of a Spitfire to the Auckland War Memorial Museum. It was an aircraft that he personally selected while on a visit to the United Kingdom that year. The donated Spitfire, a Mk XVI, which had been used in the filming of ''Reach for the Sky'', arrived at the museum the following year and Park gave an address at its formal unveiling. The aircraft remains on display in one of the museum's galleries.

Park's lack of diplomacy, together with his age, ultimately led to his retirement from Hawker Siddley in June 1960. Soon afterward, encouraged by the city's mayor at the time, Sir Dove-Myer Robinson, Park stood for election for the Auckland City Council. He was duly elected for a three-year term in the 1962 local elections, and went on to be reelected for two further terms.

During his time as a councilor he found himself again involved with the international airport at Mangere, being on the committee supervising the construction of some of its infrastructure. The airport began international operations in 1966 and, for a time, acquaintances of Park moved to have it named after him; the government declined to do so. In the final year of his last term as councilor, his wife, Lady Dorothy "Dol" Park, who had been unwell for some time, died.

In his later years he suffered a series of heart attacks. He took ill in Auckland on 2 February 1975 and was admitted to hospital. He died there on 6 February 1975, aged 82.

He was the recipient of a military funeral, the service being held at Holy Trinity Cathedral in Parnell. Condolences were sent by Queen Elizabeth and also Battle of Britain pilot Johnny Kent. His remains were cremated and at the request of his surviving son, the ashes were scattered over Waitemata Harbour from an aircraft. Later that year, on 12 September, a memorial service for Park was held at St Clement Danes on the Strand. One of the speakers was Bader who during his speech noted: "British military history of this century has been enriched with the names of great fighting men from New Zealand. Keith Park's name is carved into that history alongside those of his peers".

Legacy

In New Zealand, Park is commemorated by the Sir Keith Park Memorial Airfield in Thames and at the aviation section of the Museum of Transport and Technology in Auckland, the gate guardian of which is a replica of the Hurricane which Park flew while commanding No. 11 Group. The machine is not an accurate representation, as it has a stripe around the rear of the fuselage in duck-egg green, which was not introduced until the spring of 1941, by which time he was commanding Training Command.

The Sir Keith Park Special School in Mangere, South Auckland, bears his name.

In 2019, a bronze statue of Park was unveiled outside the Thames War Memorial Civic Centre. The statue was funded by a $200,000 bequest from Betty Hare, who felt that he deserved greater recognition in his homeland.

In the United Kingdom, Keith Park Crescent, a residential road near the former RAF station at Biggin Hill, is named after him, as is Keith Park Road in Uxbridge.

A Southern Railway (Great Britain) West Country Class/Battle of Britain Class locomotive, No. 34053 was named after him in 1947, Park being present at its dedication ceremony. The locomotive has survived into preservation, and has been restored from scrapyard condition. Rededicated to Park in 2013, the locomotive is presently owned by Southern Locomotives Ltd and based on the Spa Valley Railway.

Thanks to the advocacy of financier Terry Smith, on 4 November 2009 a temporary fibreglass statue of Park was unveiled on the Fourth plinth in Trafalgar Square. This was in recognition of his role in the Battle of Britain. Members of Park's family were present for the unveiling, which occurred in front of 1,000 people. It remained on display for six months before being moved to the Royal Air Force Museum in London in May 2010.

A more permanent recognition for Park in London was still desired and in May 2009 the Westminster City Council agreed to erect a statue in Waterloo Place. A bronze version of the sculpture displayed on the Fourth plinth was installed at Waterloo Place and unveiled there on 15 September 2010, Battle of Britain Day, during the 70th anniversary commemorations of the Battle. Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton, said that Park was "a man without whom the history of the Battle of Britain could have been disastrously different. He was a man who never failed at any task he was given."

Notes

Footnotes

Citations

References

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External links

''Keith Rodney Park 2/1254'' WWI NZEF Military Personnel Record (online)

Thames Coromandel District Council – our airfields

Profile
on BBC News website.

Clive James, BBC

1961 BBC Interview – Park describes Battle of Britain tactics, strategies and post-campaign conspiracies.

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Park, Keith
1892 births
1975 deaths
Battle of Britain
British Army personnel of World War I
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Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Commanders of the Legion of Merit
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