History
Early scholars to have done work on Kalasha include the 19th-century orientalist Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner and the 20th-century linguist Georg Morgenstierne. More recently, studies have been undertaken by Elena Bashir and several others. The development of practical literacy materials has been associated with the Kalasha linguist Taj Khan Kalash. The Southern Kalash or Urtsun Kalash shifted to a Khowar-influenced dialect of Kalasha-mun in the 20th century called Urtsuniwar.Classification
Of all the languages in Pakistan, Kalasha is likely the most conservative, along with the nearby language Khowar language, Khowar. In a few cases, Kalasha is even more conservative than Khowar, e.g. in retaining voiced aspirate consonants, which have disappeared from most other Dardic languages. Some of the typical retentions of sounds and clusters (and meanings) are seen in the following list. However, note some common New Indo-Aryan and Dardic features as well.Phonology
The Kalasha language is phonologically atypical because it contrasts plain, long, nasal and retroflex vowels as well as combinations of these (Heegård & Mørch 2004). Set out below is the phonology of Kalasha:Vowels
Consonants
As with other Dardic languages, the phonemic status of the breathy voiced series is debatable. Some analyses are unsure of whether they are phonemic or allophonic—i.e., the regular pronunciations of clusters of voiced consonants with /h/. The phonemes /x ɣ q/ are found in loanwords.Vocabulary comparison
The following table compares Kalash words to their cognates in other Indo-Aryan languages.Conservative traits
Examples of conservative features in Kalasha and Khowar are (note, NIA = New Indo-Aryan, MIA = Middle Indo-Aryan, OIA = Old Indo-Aryan):Jan Heegård Petersen (2015) Kalasha texts – With introductory grammar, Acta Linguistica Hafniensia, 47: sup1, 1-275, * Preservation of intervocalic /m/ (reduced to a nasalized /w/ or /v/ in late MIA elsewhere), e.g. Kal. ''grom'', Kho. ''gram'' "village" < OIA ''grāma'' * Non-deletion of intervocalic /t/, preserved as /l/ or /w/ in Kalasha, /r/ in Khowar (deleted in middle MIA elsewhere), e.g. Kho. ''brār'' "brother" < OIA ''bhrātṛ''; Kal. ''ʃau'' < ''*ʃal'', Kho. ''ʃor'' "hundred" < OIA ''śata'' * Preservation of the distinction between all three OIA sibilants (dental /s/, palatal /ś/, retroflex /ṣ/); in most of the subcontinent, these three had already merged before 200 BC (early MIA) * Preservation of sibilant + consonant, stop + /r/ clusters (lost by early MIA in most other places): ** Kal. ''aṣṭ'', Kho. ''oṣṭ'' "eight" < OIA ''aṣṭā''; Kal. ''hast'', Kho. ''host'' "hand" < OIA ''hasta''; Kal. ''istam'' "bunch" < OIA ''stamba''; Kho. ''istōr'' "pack horse" < OIA ''sthōra''; Kho. ''isnār'' "bathed" < OIA ''snāta''; Kal. Kho. ''iskow'' "peg" < OIA ''*'' (< ''skambha''); Kho. ''iśper'' "white" < OIA ''śvēta''; Kal. ''isprɛs'', Kho. ''iśpreṣi'' "mother-in-law" < OIA ''śvaśru''; Kal. ''piṣṭ'' "back" < OIA ''pṛṣṭha''; Kho. ''aśrū'' "tear" < OIA ''aśru''. ** Kho. ''kren-'' "buy" < OIA ''krīṇ-''; Kal. ''grom'', Kho. ''grom'' "village" < OIA ''grāma''; Kal. ''gŕä'' "neck" < OIA ''grīva''; Kho. ''griṣp'' "summer" < OIA ''grīṣma'' * Preservation of /ts/ in Kalasha (reinterpreted as a single phoneme) * Direct preservation of many OIA case endings as so-called "layer 1" case endings (as opposed to newer "layer 2" case endings, typically tacked onto a layer-1 oblique case): ** Nominative ** Oblique (Animate): Pl. Kal. ''-an'', Kho. ''-an'' < OIA ''-ān'' ** Genitive: Kal. ''-as'' (sg.), ''-an'' (pl.); Kho. ''-o'' (sg.), ''-an, -ān'' (pl.) < OIA ''-asya'' (sg.), ''āṇām'' (pl.) ** Dative: Kal. ''-a'', Kho. ''-a'' < OIA dative ''-āya'', elsewhere lost already in late OIA ** Instrumental: Kal. ''-an'', Kho. ''-en'' < OIA ''-ēna'' ** Ablative: Kal. ''-au'', Kho. ''-ār'' < OIA ''-āt'' ** Locative: Kal. ''-ai'', Kho. ''-i'' < OIA ''-ai'' * Preservation of more than one verbal conjugation (e.g. Kho. ''mār-īm'' "I kill" vs. ''bri-um'' "I die") * Preservation of OIA distinction between "primary" (non-past) and "secondary" (past) endings and of a past-tense "augment" in a-, both lost entirely elsewhere: Kal. ''pim'' "I drink", ''apis'' "I drank"; ''kārim'' "I do", ''akāris'' "I did" * Preservation of a verbal preterite tense (see examples above), with normal nominative/accusative marking and normal verbal agreement, as opposed to the Ergative verb, ergative-type past tenses with nominal-type agreement elsewhere in NIA (originally based on a participial passive construction)Further reading
*References
Bibliography
* * * * Maps showing distribution of words among people of Kafiristan. * * * * * * * * *External links