Jiva Goswami ( sa, जीव गोस्वामी, Jīva Gosvāmī; ) was an Indian philosopher and

saint In religious belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness, likeness, or closeness to God. However, the use of the term ''saint'' depends on the context and denomination. In Catholic, Eastern Or ...

from the

Gaudiya Vaishnava Gaudiya Vaishnavism (), also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism, is a Vaishnavism, Vaishnava Hindu denominations, Hindu religious movement inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the Gaura or Gauḍa region o ...

school of

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, ...

tradition, producing a great number of philosophical works on the theology and practice of

Bhakti yoga Bhakti yoga ( sa, भक्ति योग), also called Bhakti marga (, literally the path of ''Bhakti''), is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any personal deity.Karen Pechelis (2014 ...

, Vaishnava Vedanta and associated disciplines. He is known as one of the

Six Goswamis of Vrindavan The Six Goswamis of Vrindavan were a group of devotional teachers (gurus) from the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism who lived in India during the 15th and 16th centuries. They are closely associated with the land of Vrindavan where they sp ...

and was the nephew of the two leading figures,

Rupa Goswami Rupa Goswami ( sa, रूप गोस्वामी, bn, রূপ গোস্বামী, ; 1489–1564) was a devotional teacher ( guru), poet, and philosopher of the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition. With his brother Sanatana Goswami, he i ...

and

Sanatana Goswami Sanatana Goswami ( sa, सनातन गोस्वामी, ; bn, সনাতন গোস্বামী; 1488–1558) was a principal follower of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Sanatana wrote a number of important works in the bhakti tradition ...

Biography

Genealogy

His family lineage can be traced to

Indian State India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories, with a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and smaller administrative divisions. History Pre-indepen ...

Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...

and

Naihati Naihati is a city and a municipality of North 24 Parganas district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is a part of the area covered by Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA). Naihati Municipality is one of the oldest in the wh ...

in the district of

North 24 Parganas North 24 Parganas (abv. 24 PGS (N)) or sometimes North Twenty Four Parganas is a district in southern West Bengal, of eastern India. North 24 Parganas extends in the tropical zone from latitude 22° 11′ 6″ north to 23° 15′ 2″ north and ...

in present-day

West Bengal West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the fou ...

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...

. The former generations according to ''Bhakti-ratnakara'': Sarvajna Jagatguru was a famous

brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ...

, great scholar in all

Vedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...

, respected Yajur-vedi of the Baradvaja caste, and king of

South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union terr ...

, adored by all other contemporary kings. Sarvajna's son, Aniruddha, was spirited, famous, a proficient scholar of the Vedas, and a favorite of the reigning kings at the time. Aniruddha's sons, Rupesvara (eldest) and Harihara, were well respected due to their virtuous qualities. Rupesvara was famed as a scholar of the scriptures, while Harihara became a master in the art and science of weapons. Both brothers inherited the administration of the state after their father died, but Harihara soon snatched all the power, causing Rupesvara and his wife to travel to Paulastha-desa, where Sikharesvara befriended him and convinced him to settle there. Rupesvara's son, Padmanabha, was a genius and easily learned the four Vedas making him famous. He had impeccable character and was genuinely absorbed in love of

Lord Jagannatha Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...

. He left Sikharabhumi and settled on the bank of the

Ganges The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...

in the village Navahatta (present-day

Mitra, Satishchandra (1914), ''Jashohar- Khulnar Itihas Vol.1'', p 351), where he had eighteen daughters and five sons. His five sons were Purusottama (eldest), Jagannatha, Narayana, Murari, and Mukunda (youngest), where Purusottama and Mukunda were the best in experience and character. Mukunda's son, Kumara, was a great brahmana and highly virtuous. He privately engaged in oblations and purificatory penances. Becoming very disturbed by family difficulties, he left the village Navahatta with his followers and settled in the village Bakla Chandradvipa in

East Bengal ur, , common_name = East Bengal , status = Province of the Dominion of Pakistan , p1 = Bengal Presidency , flag_p1 = Flag of British Bengal.svg , s1 = Ea ...

(now

Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mo ...

). He built a house in the village Fateyabad in

Jessore Jessore ( bn, যশোর, jôshor, ), officially Jashore, is a city of Jessore District situated in Khulna Division. It is situated in the south-western part of Bangladesh. It is the administrative centre (headquarter) of the eponymous district ...

for the convenience of communications with devotees and traveling

Vaishnavas Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

. Among Kumara's many sons, Sanatana (eldest),

Rupa Rupa may refer to: Places * Rupa, Croatia, a town in northwest Croatia * Rupa, Arunachal Pradesh, a town of Arunachal Pradesh * Rupa gold mine, an artisanal mine in Uganda * Rupa Lake, a freshwater lake in Nepal Science * ''Rupa'' (beetle), a b ...

(middle), and Vallabha (youngest) were the life of the Vaishnava community and great devotees, all three becoming well known for their academic genius and devotion, and eventually settling in the village Ramakeli in Gauda (present-day Maldah,

Ray, Shankarnath (1958), ''Bharater Sadhak Vol. 11'', p 72). The brothers were greatly inspired by

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishn ...

, who lived in

Nadia Nadia is a female name. Variations include Nadja, Nadya, Nadine, Nadiya, and Nadiia. Most variations of the name are derived from Arabic, Slavic languages, or both. In Slavic, names similar to ''Nadia'' mean "hope" in many Slavic languages: ...

(a district of present-day

) at the time. Sanatana and Rupa eventually resigned from their ministerial (royal) posts and retired to help Chaitanya in his mission, eventually relocating to

Vrindavan Vrindavan (; ), also spelt Vrindaban and Brindaban, is a historical city in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located in the Braj Bhoomi region and holds religious importance in Hinduism as Krishna spent most of his childho ...

a. Vallabha, who was always happy in service, was initiated by Chaitanya and given the name Anupama, and was known for his stoicism and neutrality in his detachment from worldly affairs. Alternatively, it is said that his ancestors migrated from

to Gauda and lived in the village Ramkeli, near Gauda for generations. Vallabha's son, Jiva Goswami, was very talented, completing his studies in '' vyakarana'' and other subjects within a very short time, grasping vast spiritual knowledge with a sincere and devotional endeavor. Jiva avoided activities that had no connection with Krishna. He never married and remained

celibate Celibacy (from Latin ''caelibatus'') is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons. It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee. In its narrow sense, th ...

. His pleased uncles treated him affectionately. Jiva, like his uncles, was greatly inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and was attracted to Vrindavana and his uncles there, which caused Jiva to eventually renounce material life and join his uncles in their mission. On the way to join his uncles in Vrindavana, he first met with

Nityananda Prabhu Nityānanda (; born circa 1474), also called Nitai, was a primary religious figure within the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Bengal. Nitai was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's friend and disciple. They are often mentioned together as ''Gaura-Nitai'' ...

Nabadwip Nabadwip (), also spelt Navadwip, anciently Nadia or Nudiya, is a heritage city in Nadia district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is regarded as a holy place by Hindus, and is the birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Famous for Rass fest ...

for a few days, then studied from Madhusudana Vacaspati in

Kasi KASI (1430 AM, "News Talk 1430") is a radio station licensed to serve Ames, Iowa. The station is owned by iHeartMedia, Inc. and licensed to iHM Licenses, LLC. It airs a News/Talk radio format. The station was assigned the KASI call letters by ...

and became expert in '' Nyaya Vedanta'' and other scriptures.

Birth and early life

There seems to be some controversy amongst biographers about Jiva Goswami's birth. Some opine that he lived from 1511 to 1596 CE, while others claim that he lived from 1533 to 1618 CE. Not much is known about Jiva Goswami's childhood. He was born in Ramakeli in the district of Maldah,

as the son of Srivallabha Mallika (also known as Anupama), the younger brother of Rupa and Sanatana; his mother's name is unknown. He had a strong affinity to the worship of

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...

even from his childhood and excelled in his education completing his studies in

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...

Vyakarana (grammar) and Kavya (poetics) within a very short period. When Jiva was three or four years old, his uncles resigned from their ministerial posts at the court of Alauddin Hussein Shah (ruled 1493–1519 CE) after their initial meeting with

(1486–1534 CE) and they decided to join his ranks as mendicants. Jiva's father, Anupama, also met with Chaitanya at this time and followed in the footsteps of his elder brothers and proceeded to travel with Rupa to Vrindavana.

Jiva leaves home

Hearing that his father and uncles had made their decision to work in the service of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the young Jiva desired to join them also. According to the biographical work Bhakti Ratnakara of Narahari Chakravarti, Jiva had a dream of Chaitanya at this time. This gave him the impetus to leave home and join Rupa and Sanatana. It is unclear from his biographies whether or not Jiva actually ever met Chaitanya personally. Jiva travelled to

Navadvipa Nabadwip (), also spelt Navadwip, anciently Nadia or Nudiya, is a heritage city in Nadia district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is regarded as a holy place by Hindus, and is the birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Famous for Rass fest ...

in West Bengal and met with Nityananda Rama, one of the foremost associate of Chaitanya mahaprabhu.

Nityananda Nityānanda (; born circa 1474), also called Nitai, was a primary religious figure within the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Bengal. Nitai was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's friend and disciple. They are often mentioned together as ''Gaura-Nitai' ...

took Jiva to all the holy places in Navadvipa and they circumambulated the entire area together. This marked the beginning of the Gaudiya tradition of Navadvipa parikrama (circumambulation of the nine sections of Navadvipa). After the pilgrimage, Nityananda gave his blessings for the young Jiva to proceed towards Vrindavana.

Vrindavana

Jiva went on to

Benares Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world. * * * * The city has a syncretic tra ...

where he studied for some time under the tutelage of Madhusudana Vachaspati, the disciple of the famous logician and Vedantist,

Sarvabhauma Bhattacharya Sarvabhauma Bhattacharya was medieval Pandit and Bhakti reformer from Kamrup. As a vedantist of the Advaita school, he refuted the monistic doctrines of Sankaradeva Srimanta Sankardev( শ্ৰীমন্ত শংকৰদেৱ )(; ...

. Under Vachaspati, Jiva mastered the six systems of

Indian philosophy Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Veda ...

known as ''Sad Darsana''. In 1535 Jiva arrived in Vrindavana where he remained under the tutelage of his uncles, Rupa and Sanatana (by this time his father Anupama had died). He accepted initiation from Rupa Goswami and was taught the

esoteric Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition, is a term scholars use to categorise a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within Western society. These ideas ...

principles of devotion to Krishna. Jiva helped to edit the writings of Rupa and Sanatana and assisted them in their work in propagating Gaudiya Vaishnavism and excavating the lost holy places of Vrindavana.

Literary contributions

After the passing of Rupa and Sanatana, Jiva Goswami became the foremost authority in the Gaudiya Vaishnava line. In 1542 Jiva established one of the prominent and important temples in the Vrindavana area, the Radha Damodara mandir, installing deities of

Radha Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also d ...

and

that had been personally carved by Rupa Goswami. At that time he also established the Vishva Vaishnava Raja Sabha (World Vaishnava Association) and the Rupanuga Vidyapitha, an educational facility for Gaudiya Vaishnavas to study the works of Rupa and Sanatana. His erudition and spirituality were so famous that the Moghul emperor

Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Hum ...

became his ardent admirer and donated paper for his writing. In 1558, Jiva instructed his students,

Narottama Dasa Narottama Dasa Thakura (c. 1466; date of death unknown), also known as Thakura Mahasaya, was a Gaudiya Vaishnava saint who was responsible for spreading Vaishnava bhakti throughout Odisha in and outside of Bengal in India. Narottama Dasa was the ...

, Srinivasa Acarya and Shyamananda, to go to

Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...

and propagate the

philosophy and to take with them the original manuscripts that had been written by Rupa and Sanatana. One of Jiva's main theological contributions was to present Chaitanya's teachings as “the epitome of the

.” To do so, Jiva should claim that the ''

Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in S ...

'', which Chaitanya regarded as the key Hindu scripture, was indeed part of the Vedas, while it was not generally considered as “part of the canonical Veda” at that time. Jiva proceeded to “extend the scope of the Veda to include the epics and the Purānas,” and concluded that the ''

'' was “scripture ''par excellence''”. In fact, he shifted “the locus of scriptural authority from the Veda to the ''Bhāgavata'',” which had important, if controversial, consequences for the subsequent development of Hindu theology.

Jiva's disappearance

Jiva Goswami left this mortal world and ascended back to the spiritual planet, Golok Vrindavana in 1596 CE (or 1618 according to some biographies). His

samādhi ''Samadhi'' ( Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yo ...

(tomb) is located in the precincts of the Radha-Damodara temple in Vrindavana. According to followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Jiva Goswami is considered to be the incarnation of Vilasa Manjari, an eternal maidservant of Radharani.

Achintya-bhedabheda philosophy

It was in his Sarva-samvadini commentary to the

Sat Sandarbhas ''Sat Sandarbhas'' (''Six Sandarbhas'', ) is a 16th-century Vaishnava Sanskrit text, authored by Gaudiya Vaishnava theologian Jiva Goswami. The six treatise are ''Tattva-'', ''Bhagavat-'', ''Paramatma-'', ''Krishna-'', ''Bhakti-'', and ''Priti-s ...

Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...

that Jiva Goswami first wrote of

Achintya Bheda Abheda Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (अचिन्त्यभेदाभेद, ' in IAST) is a school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference''.pp. 47-52 In Sanskrit ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda ...

, the philosophy of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In essence, the philosophy of Achintya bheda abheda, or "inconceivable

oneness Oneness may refer to: Economy * Law of one price (LoP), an economic concept which posits that "a good must sell for the same price in all locations". Religious philosophy * Oneness Pentecostalism, a movement of nontrinitarian denominations * Nond ...

and

difference Difference, The Difference, Differences or Differently may refer to: Music * ''Difference'' (album), by Dreamtale, 2005 * ''Differently'' (album), by Cassie Davis, 2009 ** "Differently" (song), by Cassie Davis, 2009 * ''The Difference'' (al ...

", avoids the extremes of Shankara's monistic

Advaita ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ( ...

vedanta and Madhva's pure dualism (

Dvaita Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta ...

) by interpreting the material and spiritual potencies of the Supreme Person (

Bhagavan Bhagavan ( sa, भगवान्, Bhagavān; pi, Bhagavā, italics=yes), also spelt Bhagwan (sometimes translated in English as "Lord"), is an epithet within Indian religions used to denote figures of religious worship. In Hinduism it is us ...

) as being simultaneously one and different with Him.

Works

There are at least 25 literary works attributed to Jiva Goswami, which can be classified into four types: treatises, commentaries, grammar and rhetoric, and poetry, with the best-known in each category being ''Sat-sandarbhas'', ''Durgama-sangamani'', ''Hari-namamrita-vyakarana'' and ''Gopalachampu'', respectively.

Treatises

'' Sat-sandarbhas'' ,
''Bhagavata-sandarbha'' :
Sometimes called the ''Bhagavata-sandarbha'', not to be confused with the second treatise titled ''Bhagavat-sandarbha'', where "''sandarbha''" literally means "weaving" or "arranging". ''Sandarbhas'' are a thematic arrangement of the ''

'' presenting Caitanya Vaishnavism in a systematic and comprehensive way. Intensely theological, this work is considered the most important among all his works. According to Jiva Goswami,

Gopala Bhatta Goswami Gopala Bhatta Goswami (1503–1578) is one of the foremost disciples of the Vaishnava saint, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, and a leading historical figure in the Gaudiya Vaishnava school of Hinduism. He was part of a group of Vaishnava devotees known ...

completed the preliminary work, but couldn't finish it. Jiva Goswami expanded it into six books, wherein he systematically presents the philosophy of

with scriptural evidences. # ''Tattva-Sandarbha'':
A treatise on the various types of evidences (''

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".shabda ''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance. History In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyaya ...

'' (divine sound in the form of the

Vedic scriptures upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...

) is the highest, and of all the scriptures, the ''

'' is the highest pointing to the Absolute Truth. # ''Bhagavat-sandarbha'':
Distinguishes the impersonal aspect of Godhead (

Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...

), the localized form of God within the heart of each living being (

Paramatma ''Paramatman'' (Sanskrit: परमात्मन्, IAST: Paramātman) or ''Paramātmā'' is the Absolute '' Atman'', or supreme Self, in various philosophies such as the Vedanta and Yoga schools in Hindu theology, as well as other Indian r ...

), and the highest personal aspect of Godhead (

). Describes the spiritual realm of Krishna, the modes of material nature, the mode of pure goodness (''visuddha-sattva''), the importance of worshiping the

deity A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...

of Krishna, and the eternal nature and qualities of the deity. # ''Paramatma-sandarbha'' :
Describes the characteristics of

(supersoul), and how he resides in all living entities in the universe. Discusses the nature of the materially conditioned living entities, the phenomenal material world, the illusory potency (''

maya Maya may refer to: Civilizations * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Maya language, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (Ethiopia), a popul ...

''), the theory of transformation, the various ''

avatar Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appear ...

s'' of

, how Krishna reciprocates with his devotees, and how Krishna is characterized by six particular opulences. # ''Krishna-sandarbha'' :
Gives a number of quotes from various scriptures to prove that

is the supreme god. Discusses the pastimes and qualities of Krishna as well as his ''

s'' and functionary expansions. There is a description of Goloka, the planet of Krishna in relation to

a in the material sphere, the eternal associates of Krishna and their expansions, and a description of the

Gopis Gopi ( sa, गोपी, ) or Gopika in Hinduism are worshipped as the consorts and devotees of Krishna within the Vaishnavism and Krishnaism traditions for their unconditional love and devotion (''Bhakti'') to god Krishna as described in the S ...

and the topmost position of

among them. # ''Bhakti-sandarbha'':
Explains how devotion to

is directly executed, how the self is manifest through ''

bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

'', the potency of imperfectly executed ''bhakti'', the differences between a great and ordinary devotee, spontaneous love of god (''raganuga-bhakti''), the specific purpose of becoming a devotee of Krishna, and other perfectional stages. Discusses ''

varnashrama dharma ''Varṇa'' ( sa, वर्ण, varṇa), in the context of Hinduism, refers to a social class within a hierarchical caste system. The ideology is epitomized in texts like ''Manusmriti'', which describes and ranks four varnas, and prescribes t ...

'' (the socio-religious system established in scriptures), the superexcellent position of devotion to Krishna as compared to other conceptions such as ''

yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

'', and the worship of minor deities of the

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

pantheon as being futile in comparison to the worship of Krishna's devotees. Explains liberation of the soul, the position of

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...

as a devotee of Krishna, how unmotivated devotion to Krishna promotes a devotee to the highest spiritual position and numerous other points concerning the performance of

Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

devotion. # ''Priti-sandarbha'' :
A treatise on divine love, the supreme object being

, where love for God (''

prema Prema may refer to: Films: * ''Prema'' (1952 film), a Telugu film * ''Prema'' (1989 film), a Telugu film starring Venkatesh and Revathi * ''Prema'' (2002 film), a 2002 Kannada film *''Tholi Prema (1998 film)'', a 1998 Telugu film starring Pawan Ka ...

'') is considered the highest form of

liberation Liberation or liberate may refer to: Film and television * ''Liberation'' (film series), a 1970–1971 series about the Great Patriotic War * "Liberation" (''The Flash''), a TV episode * "Liberation" (''K-9''), an episode Gaming * '' Liberati ...

. Presents a comparative study of other types of liberation, concluding '' prema bhakti'' as topmost. Discusses how to attain ''prema'', how to awaken it, and the symptoms of one who has attained it. Discusses the distinctions between mundane lust and divine love, the various mellows found among the associates of Krishna, the superexcellence of '' madhurya-rasa'' (divine conjugal love), the overlapping of different ''rasas'', and the glories of

. ''Radha-Krishna-archana-dipika'' ,
''Radha-krishnarchana-dipika'' ,
''Radha-krishnarchana-chandrika'' :
Intensely theological work describing the process of worshiping

and

together in

form, a significant contribution to the Chaitanyite ''sampradaya''.

Commentaries

''Krama-sandarbha'',
''Srimad-bhagavata-tika'' :
A commentary on the ''

'', often described as the "seventh" of the six ''Sandarbhas''. ''Dig-darshani-tika'' ,
''Brahmha-samhita-tika'' :
A commentary on the ''

Brahma Samhita The ''Brahma Samhita'' () is a Sanskrit ''Pancharatra'' text, composed of verses of prayer spoken by Brahma glorifying the Lord Vishnu, as well as his avatars such as Krishna, at the beginning of creation. It is revered within Gaudiya Vaishna ...

'' (). ''Durgama-sangamani'' ,
''Bhakti-rasamrita-sesha'' ,
''Bhakti-rasamrita-sindu-tika'' :
A commentary on Rupa Goswami's ''Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu''. ''Lochana-rochani'' ,
''Ujjvala-nilamani-tika'' :
A commentary on Rupa Goswami's ''Ujjvala-nilamani''. ''Sukha-bodhini'',
''Gopala-tapani-tika'' :
A commentary on the '' Gopala-tapani Upanishad'' (), which has importance in

Gaudiya Vaishnavism Gaudiya Vaishnavism (), also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism, is a Vaishnava Hindu religious movement inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the Gaura or Gauḍa region of Bengal, with Vaishnavism meani ...

as it provides Upanishadic backing for the notion that

is the supreme deity. ''Gayatri-vyakhya-vivriti'' ,
''Agni-puranastha Gayatri-bhashya'' :
A commentary on the

Brahma Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp ...

Gayatri mantra The Gāyatrī Mantra, also known as the Sāvitri Mantra, is a highly revered mantra from the '' Rig Veda'' ( Mandala 3.62.10), dedicated to the Vedic deity Savitr. is the name of the Goddess of the Vedic meter in which the verse is composed. ...

as found in the ''

Agni Purana The ''Agni Purana'', ( sa, अग्नि पुराण, ) is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas of Hinduism. The text is variously classified as a Purana related to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism, but also ...

'', chapters 216–217. ''Laghu-vaishnava-toshani'' ,
''Laghu-toshani'' :
A commentary on the 10th canto of the

based on Sanatana Goswami's ''Brihad-vaishnava-toshani'' () commentary. ''Sarva-samvadini'' :
A extensive auto-commentary on Jiva Goswami's own '' Sat-sandarbhas''. ''Padma-puranastha Yogasara-stotra-tika'' ,
''Yogasara-stavaka-tika'' ''Padma-puranokta Krishna-pada-padma-chihna'' :
An elaborate description of the insignia found on Krishna's feet according to ''

Padma Purana The ''Padma Purana'' ( sa, पद्मपुराण or पाद्मपुराण, or ) is one of the eighteen Major Puranas, a genre of texts in Hinduism. It is an encyclopedic text, named after the lotus in which creator god Brah ...

''. ''Radhika-kara-pada-sthita-chihna'' :
A description of the insignia found on Radhna's hands and feet.

Grammar and rhetoric

'' Hari-namamrita-vyakarana'' ,
''Harinamamrita-vyakarana'' :
A work on

Sanskrit grammar The grammar of the Sanskrit language has a complex verbal system, rich nominal declension, and extensive use of compound nouns. It was studied and codified by Sanskrit grammarians from the later Vedic period (roughly 8th century BCE), culminati ...

, wherein each and every word, syllable and grammatical rule is explained in relation to

and his pastimes. ''Sutra-malika'' :
A grammatical work on derivations of

words. ''Dhatu-sangraha'' :
A work on the verb roots of

words. ''Rasamrita-sesha'' :
A work dealing with Sanskrit composition based on Viswanatha Kaviraja's '' Sahityadarpana'', with many added examples from Jiva Goswami and the other Goswamis.

Poetry

''Madhava-mahotsava'' :
Descriptions of Radha's coronation ceremony as Queen of

a. ''Gopala-virudavali'' :
A short poem extolling the glories of

Gopala Gopala (Bangla: গোপাল) (ruled c. 750s–770s CE) was the founder of the Pala dynasty of Bihar and Bengal regions of the Indian Subcontinent. The last morpheme of his name ''Pala'' means "protector" and was used as an ending for the nam ...

(

) in 38 verses. ''Gopala-champu'' ,
''Gopalachampu'' :
Intensely theological poetic work divided into two parts. Purva-champu () has 33 chapters and elaborately describes Krishna's activities in

a. Uttara-champu () has 37 chapters and describes Krishna's activities in

Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...

and Dvarka after leaving Vrindavana and the separation the residents of Vrindavana feel in his absence. ''Sankalpa-kalpavriksha'' ,
''Sankalpa-kalpadruma'' :
Explains the eight-fold daily pastimes of

and

(''asta-kaliya-lila'') in prayer form. ''Bhavartha-suchaka-champu''