Igbo people in Jamaica
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Igbo people in Jamaica were shipped by Europeans onto the island between the 18th and 19th centuries as enslaved labour on plantations.
Igbo people The Igbo people ( , ; also spelled Ibo" and formerly also ''Iboe'', ''Ebo'', ''Eboe'', * * * ''Eboans'', ''Heebo''; natively ) are an ethnic group in Nigeria. They are primarily found in Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo States. A ...
constituted a large portion of the African population enslaved people in
Jamaica Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
. Jamaica received the largest amount of slaves from the biafra region than anywhere else in the diaspora during the slave trade. Some slave censuses detailed the large number of enslaved Igbo people on various plantations throughout the island on different dates throughout the 18th century. Their presence was a large part in forming Jamaican culture, Igbo cultural influence remains in
language Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...
, dance, music, folklore, cuisine, religion and mannerisms. In Jamaica the Igbo were often referred to as Eboe or Ibo. There are a substantial number of Igbo language
loanword A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because th ...
s in Jamaican Patois. Igbo people mostly populated the northwestern section of the island.


History

Originating primarily from what was known as the
Bight of Biafra The Bight of Biafra (known as the Bight of Bonny in Nigeria) is a bight off the West African coast, in the easternmost part of the Gulf of Guinea. Geography The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town Mafra in southern Portugal), between ...
on the West African coast, Igbo people were taken in relatively high numbers to Jamaica as a result of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, beginning around 1750. The primary ports from which the majority of these enslaved people were taken from were Bonny and Calabar, two port towns that are now in south-eastern Nigeria. The
slave ship Slave ships were large cargo ships specially built or converted from the 17th to the 19th century for transporting slaves. Such ships were also known as "Guineamen" because the trade involved human trafficking to and from the Guinea coast ...
s arriving from
Bristol Bristol () is a city, ceremonial county and unitary authority in England. Situated on the River Avon, it is bordered by the ceremonial counties of Gloucestershire to the north and Somerset to the south. Bristol is the most populous city in ...
and
Liverpool Liverpool is a city and metropolitan borough in Merseyside, England. With a population of in 2019, it is the 10th largest English district by population and its metropolitan area is the fifth largest in the United Kingdom, with a popul ...
delivered the slaves to the British colonies including Jamaica. The bulk of enslaved Igbo people arrived relatively late, between 1790 and 1807, when the British passed the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act which outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire. Igbo people were spread on plantations on the island's northwestern side, specifically the areas around
Montego Bay Montego Bay is the capital of the Parishes of Jamaica, parish of Saint James Parish, Jamaica, St. James in Jamaica. The city is the fourth-largest urban area in the country by population, after Kingston, Jamaica, Kingston, Spanish Town, and Por ...
and
St. Ann's Bay Saint Ann's Bay is a settlement in Jamaica, the capital of Saint Ann Parish. It had a population of 10,961 at the 1991 census. Musicians Floyd Lloyd and Burning Spear, and Marcus Garvey were born in the town. History When Christopher Columbus f ...
, and consequently, their influence was concentrated there. The region also witnessed a number of revolts that were attributed to people of Igbo origin. Slave owner Matthew Lewis spent time in Jamaica between 1815 and 1817 and studied the way his slaves organised themselves by ethnicity and he noted, for example, that at one time when he "went down to the negro-houses to hear the whole body of Eboes lodge a complaint against one of the book-keepers". Olaudah Equiano, a prominent member of the movement for the abolition of the slave trade, was an African-born Igbo ex-slave. On one of his journeys to the Americas as a free man, as documented in his 1789 journal, Equiano was hired by Dr. Charles Irving to recruit slaves for his 1776
Mosquito Shore The Mosquito Coast, also known as the Mosquitia or Mosquito Shore, historically included the area along the eastern coast of present-day Nicaragua and Honduras. It formed part of the Western Caribbean Zone. It was named after the local Miskitu ...
scheme in Jamaica, for which Equiano hired Igbo slaves, whom he called "My own countrymen". Equiano was especially useful to Irving for his knowledge of the Igbo language, using Equiano as a tool to maintain social order among his Igbo slaves in Jamaica. Igbo slaves were known, many a times, to have resorted to resistance rather than revolt and maintained "unwritten rules of the plantation" of which the plantation owners were forced to abide by. Igbo culture influenced Jamaican spirituality with the introduction of
Obeah Obeah, or Obayi, is an ancestrally inherited tradition of Akan witches of Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Togo and their descendants in the African diaspora of the Caribbean. Inheritors of the tradition are referred to as "obayifo" (Akan/Ghana-region ...
folk magic; accounts of "Eboe" slaves being "obeahed" by each other have been documented by plantation owners. However, there is some suggestion that the word "Obeah" was also used by enslaved Akan people, before Igbos arrived in Jamaica. Other Igbo cultural influences include the
Jonkonnu Junkanoo is a street parade with music, dance, and costumes with origin in many islands across the English-speaking world, English speaking West Indies, Caribbean every Boxing Day (26 December) and New Year's Day (1 January). These cultural par ...
festivals, Igbo words such as "unu", "una", idioms, and proverbs in Jamaican patois. In
Maroon Maroon ( US/ UK , Australia ) is a brownish crimson color that takes its name from the French word ''marron'', or chestnut. "Marron" is also one of the French translations for "brown". According to multiple dictionaries, there are var ...
music were songs derived from specific African ethnic groups, among these were songs called "Ibo" that had a distinct style. Igbo people were hardly reported to have been Maroons. Enslaved Igbo people were known to have committed mass suicides, not only for rebellion, but in the belief their spirits will return to their motherland. In a publication of a 1791 issue of ''
Massachusetts Magazine The ''Massachusetts Magazine'' was published in Boston, Massachusetts, from 1789 through 1796. Also called the ''Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment,'' it specialized in "poetry, music, biography, history, physics, geography, mo ...
'', an anti-slavery poem was published called ''Monimba'', which depicted a fictional pregnant enslaved Igbo woman who committed suicide on a slave ship bound for Jamaica. The poem is an example of the stereotype of enslaved Igbo people in the Americas. Igbo slaves were also distinguished physically by a prevalence of "yellowish" skin tones prompting the colloquialisms "red eboe" used to describe people with light skin tones and African features. Enslaved Igbo women were paired with enslaved Coromantee ( Akan) men by slave owners so as to subdue the latter due to the belief that Igbo women were bound to their first-born sons' birthplace. Archibald Monteith, whose birth name was Aniaso, was an enslaved Igbo man taken to Jamaica after being tricked by an African slave trader. Anaeso wrote a journal about his life, from when he was kidnapped from
Igboland Igboland (Standard ), also known as Southeastern Nigeria (but extends into South-Southern Nigeria), is the indigenous homeland of the Igbo people. It is a cultural and common linguistic region in southern Nigeria. Geographically, it is divided b ...
to when he became a Christian convert. After the abolition of slavery in Jamaica in the 1830s, Igbo people also arrived on the island as indentured servants between the years of 1840 and 1864 along with a majority
Kongo Congo or The Congo may refer to either of two countries that border the Congo River in central Africa: * Democratic Republic of the Congo, the larger country to the southeast, capital Kinshasa, formerly known as Zaire, sometimes referred to a ...
and "Nago" (
Yoruba The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
) people. Since the 19th century most of the population African Jamaicans had assimilated into the wider Jamaican society and have largely dropped ethnic associations with Africa.


Slave rebellions and uprisings

Enslaved Igbo people, along with "Angolas" and "Congoes" were often runaways, liberating themselves from enslavement. In slave runaway advertisements held in Jamaica workhouses in 1803 out of 1046 Africans recorded, 284 were described as "Eboes and Mocoes", 185 "Congoes", 259 "Angolas", 101 "Mandingoes", 70
Coromantees Coromantee, Coromantins, Coromanti or Kormantine (derived from the name of the Ghanaian slave fort Fort Kormantine in the Ghanaian town of Kormantse, Central Ghana) is an English-language term for enslaved people from the Akan ethnic group, ta ...
, 60 "Chamba" of
Sierra Leone Sierra Leone,)]. officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered by Liberia to the southeast and Guinea surrounds the northern half of the nation. Covering a total area of , Sierra ...
, 57 "Nagoes and Pawpaws" and 30 "scattering". 187 were documentined as "unclassified" and 488 were "American born negroes and mulattoes". Some notable slave rebellions involving Igbo people include: *The 1815 Igbo conspiracy in Jamaica's Saint Elizabeth Parish, which involved around 250 enslaved Igbo people, described as one of the revolts that contributed to a climate for
abolition Abolition refers to the act of putting an end to something by law, and may refer to: * Abolitionism, abolition of slavery * Abolition of the death penalty, also called capital punishment * Abolition of monarchy *Abolition of nuclear weapons *Abol ...
. A letter by the Governor of
Manchester Parish The Parish of Manchester is a parish located in west-central Jamaica, in the county of Middlesex. Its capital, Mandeville, is a major business centre. Its St. Paul of the Cross Pro-Cathedral is the episcopal see of the Latin Catholic Dioces ...
to Bathurst on April 13, 1816, quoted the leaders of the rebellion on trial as saying "that 'he had all the Eboes in his hand', meaning to insinuate that all the Negroes from that Country were under his controul". The plot was thwarted and several slaves were executed. *The 1816 Black River rebellion plot, was according to Lewis (1834:227—28), carried out by only people of "Eboe" origin. This plot was uncovered on March 22, 1816, by a novelist and absentee planter named Matthew Gregory "Monk" Lewis. Lewis recorded what Hayward (1985) called a proto- Calypso revolutionary hymn, sung by a group of Igbo slaves, led by the "King of the Eboes". They sang:
Oh me Good friend, Mr. Wilberforce, make we free!
God Almighty thank ye! God Almighty thank ye!
God Almighty, make we free!
Buckra in this country no make we free:
What Negro for to do? What Negro for to do?
Take force by force! Take force by force!
:"Mr. Wilberforce" was in reference to
William Wilberforce William Wilberforce (24 August 175929 July 1833) was a British politician, philanthropist and leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780, eventually becom ...
a British politician who was a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. "Buckra" was a term introduced by Igbo and Efik slaves in Jamaica to refer to
white White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no hue). It is the color of objects such as snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully reflect and scatter all the visible wavelengths of light. White on ...
slave owners and overseers.


Culture

Among Igbo cultural items in Jamaica were the Eboe, or Ibo drums popular throughout all of Jamaican music. Food was also influenced, for example the Igbo word "mba" meaning "yam root" was used to describe a type of yam in Jamaica called "himba". Igbo and Akan slaves affected drinking culture among the black population in Jamaica, using alcohol in ritual and libation. In Igboland as well as on the
Gold Coast Gold Coast may refer to: Places Africa * Gold Coast (region), in West Africa, which was made up of the following colonies, before being established as the independent nation of Ghana: ** Portuguese Gold Coast (Portuguese, 1482–1642) ** Dutch G ...
, palm wine was used on these occasions and had to be substituted by rum in Jamaica because of the absence of palm wine.
Jonkonnu Junkanoo is a street parade with music, dance, and costumes with origin in many islands across the English-speaking world, English speaking West Indies, Caribbean every Boxing Day (26 December) and New Year's Day (1 January). These cultural par ...
, a parade that is held in many West Indian nations, has been attributed to the
Njoku Ji Njoku Ji is the guardian deity of the yam for the Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria. In parts of Igboland there are still annual rituals in honor of the yam deity known as Ifejioku. In some parts children who were dedicated to the service of t ...
"yam-spirit cult", Okonko and
Ekpe Ekpe, also known as Mgbe/Egbo (Ekoi language: ''leopard''; derived from the Ibibio term for the same), is a West African secret society in Nigeria and Cameroon flourishing chiefly among the Efiks. It is also found among a number of other ethni ...
of the Igbo. Several masquerades of the Kalabari and Igbo have similar appearance to those of Jonkonnu masquerades.


Language

Much of Jamaican mannerisms and gestures themselves have a wider African origin, rather than specific Igbo origin. Some examples are non-verbal actions such as " sucking-teeth" known in Igbo as "ima osu" or "imu oso" and "cutting-eye" known in Igbo as "iro anya", and other non-verbal communications by eye movements. There are a few Igbo words in Jamaican Patois that resulted when slaves were restricted from speaking their own languages. These Igbo words still exist in Jamaican vernacular, including words such as "unu" meaning "you (plural)", "di" meaning "to be (in state of)", which became "de", and "Okwuru" "Okra" a vegetable. Some words of Igbo origin are * "akara", from "''àkàrà"'', type of food,a loanword from
Yoruba The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
* "attoo", from "''átú" meaning'' "chewing stick". Idiom such as, via Gullah "big eye" from Igbo "anya ukwu" meaning "greedy"; * "breechee" from "''mbùríchì"'', an Nri-Igbo nobleman; * "de", from "''dị"''
ith adverbial The Ith () is a ridge in Germany's Central Uplands which is up to 439 m high. It lies about 40 km southwest of Hanover and, at 22 kilometres, is the longest line of crags in North Germany. Geography Location The Ith is immediatel ...
"is" ''(to be)''; * "
obeah Obeah, or Obayi, is an ancestrally inherited tradition of Akan witches of Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Togo and their descendants in the African diaspora of the Caribbean. Inheritors of the tradition are referred to as "obayifo" (Akan/Ghana-region ...
" from "''ọbiạ" meaning'' "doctoring""mysticism"; * " okra" from "''ọkwurụ"'', a vegetable; * "poto-poto" from "opoto-opoto", * "''mkpọtọ-mkpọtọ" meaning'' "mud" or "muddy", also from Akan; * "Ibo","Eboe", from "''Ị̀gbò"'', * "se", from "''sị"'', "quote follows", also from Akan "''se"'' and English "''say"''; * "soso", from ''sọsọ'' "only";" * unu" or "una" from "''únù"'' meaning "you (plural)"


Proverbs

''"Ilu"'' in Igbo means proverbs, a part of language that is very important to the Igbo. Igbo proverbs crossed the Atlantic along with the masses of enslaved Igbo people. Several translated Igbo proverbs survive in Jamaica today because of the Igbo ancestors. Some of these include: *Igbo: "He who will swallow udala seeds must consider the size of his anus" :Jamaican: "Cow must know 'ow 'im bottom stay before 'im swallow abbe wi 'palm nut'seed"; "Jonkro must know what 'im a do before 'im swallow abbe seed." * Igbo: "Where are the young suckers that will grow when the old banana tree dies?" :Jamaican "When plantain wan' dead, it shoot ends out new suckers" * Igbo: "A man who makes trouble for other is also making one for himself." :Jamaican: "When you dig a hole/ditch for one, dig two." * Igbo: "The fly who has no one to advise it follows the corpse into the ground." :Jamaican: "Sweet-mout' fly follow coffin go a hole"; "Idle donkey follow cane-bump
he cart with cane cuttings He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...
go a nimalpound"; "Idle donkey follow crap-crap ood scrapstill dem go a pound
aste dump Aste or ASTE may refer to: * Aste (rapper) (born 1985), Finnish rapper * Aste, Estonia, a borough in Kaarma Parish, Saare County, Estonia * Aste village, Estonia, A village in Kaarma Parish, Saare County, Estonia * Aste, India, a village in Belgau ...
" * Igbo: "The sleep that lasts for one market day to another has become death." :Jamaican: "Take sleep mark death leep is foreshadowing of death"


Religion

"
Obeah Obeah, or Obayi, is an ancestrally inherited tradition of Akan witches of Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Togo and their descendants in the African diaspora of the Caribbean. Inheritors of the tradition are referred to as "obayifo" (Akan/Ghana-region ...
" refers to folk magic and sorcery that was derived from West African sources. The
W. E. B. Du Bois Institute The W. E. B. Du Bois Research Institute, formerly the W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research, is part of the Hutchins Center for African and African American Research located at Harvard University. Its main work is ...
database supports obeah being traced to the "''dibia"'' or "''obia" meaning "doctoring"'' traditions of the Igbo people. Specialists in "Obia" (also spelled ''Obea'') were known as "Dibia" (doctor, psychic) practiced similarly as the obeah men and women of the Caribbean, like predicting the future and manufacturing charms. In Jamaican mythology, "River Mumma", a mermaid, is linked to "Oya" of the
Yoruba The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
and "Uhamiri/Idemili" of the Igbo. Among Igbo beliefs in Jamaica was the idea of Africans being able to fly back home to Africa. There were reports by Europeans who visited and lived in Jamaica that Igbo slaves believed they would return to their country after death.


Notable Jamaicans of Igbo descent

*Archibald Monteith, an ex-slave who was called "Aniaso," meaning "The earth spirit forbids" or "What the earth spirit forbids" was born in Igbo land, and trafficked to Jamaica. He later orated an autobiography that was penned down by various transcribers. It details some of his childhood in the Igbo hinterland, his kidnapping, his journey to the West Indies, and his later life, both during enslavement and after his manumission. *One of Malcolm Gladwell's European ancestors had a child by an enslaved Igbo woman, which started off the mixed-race Ford family on Gladwell's mother's side.


See also

*
Jamaicans of African ancestry Afro-Jamaicans are Jamaicans of predominant Sub-Saharan African descent. They represent the largest ethnic group in the country. Most Jamaicans of mixed-race descent self-report as just Jamaican. The ethnogenesis of the Black Jamaican people ste ...
*
Redbone (ethnicity) Redbone is a term historically used in much of the southern United States to denote a multiracial individual or culture. In Louisiana, it also refers to a specific, geographically and ethnically distinct group. Definition The term has had various ...


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * {{African diaspora Jamaican culture Languages of Jamaica Jamaican Patois Igbo diaspora Ethnic groups in Jamaica History of the Colony of Jamaica