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The Humboldtian model of higher education (German: ''Humboldtsches Bildungsideal'', literally: Humboldtian education ideal) or just Humboldt's Ideal is a concept of academic education that emerged in the early 19th century and whose core idea is a

holistic Holism () is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book '' Holism and Evolution''."holism, n." OED On ...

combination In mathematics, a combination is a selection of items from a set that has distinct members, such that the order of selection does not matter (unlike permutations). For example, given three fruits, say an apple, an orange and a pear, there are th ...

of research and studies. Sometimes called simply the ''Humboldtian model'', it integrates the arts and sciences with research to achieve both comprehensive general learning and cultural knowledge. Several elements of the Humboldtian model heavily influenced and subsequently became part of the concept of the

research university A research university or a research-intensive university is a university that is committed to research as a central part of its mission. They are the most important sites at which knowledge production occurs, along with "intergenerational kn ...

. The Humboldtian model goes back to

Wilhelm von Humboldt Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt (, also , ; ; 22 June 1767 – 8 April 1835) was a Prussian philosopher, linguist, government functionary, diplomat, and founder of the Humboldt University of Berlin, which was named afte ...

, who in the time of the

Prussian reforms The Prussian Reform Movement was a series of constitutional, administrative, social and economic reforms early in nineteenth-century Prussia. They are sometimes known as the Stein-Hardenberg Reforms, for Karl Freiherr vom Stein and Karl August ...

relied on a growing, educated

middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. Com ...

to promote his claims about general education. Humboldt's educational model went beyond vocational training in Germany. In a letter to the Prussian king, he wrote: The philosopher and former State Minister for Culture of the Federal Republic of Germany,

Julian Nida-Rümelin Julian Nida-Rümelin (born 28 November 1954) is a German philosopher and public intellectual. He served as State Minister for Culture of the Federal Republic of Germany under Chancellor Schröder. He was Professor of Philosophy and Political ...

has criticized discrepancies between Humboldt's ideals and the contemporary European education policy, which narrowly understands education as preparation for the labor market, arguing instead that one needs to decide between

McKinsey McKinsey & Company is a global management consulting firm founded in 1926 by University of Chicago professor James O. McKinsey, that offers professional services to corporations, governments, and other organizations. McKinsey is the oldest and ...

and Humboldt's ideals. The concept of holistic academic education (compare

Bildung ''Bildung'' (, "education", "formation", etc.) refers to the German tradition of self-cultivation (as related to the German for: creation, image, shape), wherein philosophy and education are linked in a manner that refers to a process of both pe ...

) was an idea of

, a

Prussian Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an e ...

philosopher, government functionary and diplomat. As a

privy councilor A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a state, typically, but not always, in the context of a monarchic government. The word "privy" means "private" or "secret"; thus, a privy council was originally a committee of the mon ...

in the Interior Ministry, he reformed the Prussian education system according to

humanist Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "human ...

principles. He founded the University of Berlin (now the

Humboldt University of Berlin Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (german: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, abbreviated HU Berlin) is a German public research university in the central borough of Mitte in Berlin. It was established by Frederick William III on the initiative ...

), appointing distinguished scholars to both teach and conduct research there. Several scholars have labeled him the most influential education official in German history. Humboldt sought to create an educational system based on unbiased knowledge and analysis, combining research and teaching while allowing students to choose their own course of study. The University of Berlin was later named after him and his brother, the naturalist

Alexander von Humboldt Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt (14 September 17696 May 1859) was a German polymath, geographer, naturalist, explorer, and proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the younger brother of the Prussian minister, ...

Background

Humboldt's model was based on two ideas of the Enlightenment: the individual and the

world citizen Global citizenship is the idea that one's identity transcends geography or political borders and that responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader class: "humanity". This does not mean that such a person denounces or waives ...

. Humboldt believed that the university (and education in general, as in the

Prussian education system The Prussian education system refers to the system of education established in Prussia as a result of educational reforms in the late 18th and early 19th century, which has had widespread influence since. The Prussian education system was introd ...

) should enable students to become autonomous individuals and world citizens by developing their own reasoning powers in an environment of

academic freedom Academic freedom is a moral and legal concept expressing the conviction that the freedom of inquiry by faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy as well as the principles of academia, and that scholars should have freedom to teac ...

. Humboldt envisaged an ideal of ''Bildung'', education in a broad sense, which aimed not merely to provide professional skills through schooling along a fixed path but rather to allow students to build individual character by choosing their own way. Humboldt had studied the Greek classics since his youth, and was himself an epitome of

Eliza Marian Butler Eliza Marian Butler (29 December 1885 – 13 November 1959), who published as E. M. Butler and Elizabeth M. Butler, was an English scholar of German, Schröder Professor of German at the University of Cambridge from 1945. Her most influential book ...

's thesis about the important role of Ancient Greek literature and art in 19th-century German thinking. Humboldt believed that study of the Hellenic past would help the German national consciousness, reconciling it with modernity but distinguishing it from French culture, which he saw as rooted in the Roman tradition. The vehicle for this task was to be the university.Held, Dirk t.D., PhD, Connecticut College, USA, "Hellenism, Nationalism, and the Ideology of Research in Humboldt's University", in ''Transformation and Continuity in the History of Universities'', International Commission for the History of Universities (CIHU) Oslo, 10–11 Aug. 2000 The cultural-historical background of the Humboldtian model answered the demands of the

Bildungsbürgertum ''Bildungsbürgertum'' () is a social class that emerged in mid-18th-century Germany, as the educated social stratum of the bourgeoisie, men and women who had received an education based upon the metaphysical values of Idealism and Classical s ...

for enhanced

general knowledge General knowledge is information that has been accumulated over time through various mediums and sources. It excludes specialized learning that can only be obtained with extensive training and information confined to a single medium. General kn ...

(''Allgemeinbildung''). The Bildungsbürgertum led the

of the early 19th century and managed to generate a

knowledge society A knowledge society generates, shares and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society differs from an information society in that the former serves to transform informa ...

''ante litteram''. Humboldt believed that teaching should be guided by current research, and that research should be unbiased and independent from ideological, economic, political or religious influences. The Humboldtian model strives for unconditional

in the intellectual investigation of the world, both for teachers and for students. Study should be guided by humanistic ideals and free thought, and knowledge should be formed on the basis of

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premise ...

reason Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, ...

, and empiricism rather than authority,

tradition A tradition is a belief or behavior (folk custom) passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. A component of cultural expressions and folklore, common examples include holidays or ...

, or

dogma Dogma is a belief or set of beliefs that is accepted by the members of a group without being questioned or doubted. It may be in the form of an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, such as Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Isla ...

. In line with the basic concept of

Wissenschaft ''Wissenschaft'' is a German-language term that embraces scholarship, research, study, higher education, and academia. ''Wissenschaft'' translates exactly into many other languages, e.g. ''vetenskap'' in Swedish or ''nauka'' in Polish, but there i ...

, Humboldt regarded philosophy as the link between the different academic disciplines, which include both humanities and natural sciences.Bildung in Zeiten von Bologna?: Hochschulbildung aus der Sicht Studierender, Jennifer Ch. Müller Springer-Verlag, 28.06.2011, p. 41 Humboldt encouraged the University of Berlin to operate according to scientific, as opposed to market-driven, principles such as curiosity, freedom of research, and internal objectives. Nevertheless, Humboldt was a political conservative (in Prussian terms) and saw the state as the major player in educational matters. In 1920,

George Peabody Gooch George Peabody Gooch (21 October 1873 – 31 August 1968) was a British journalist, historian and Liberal Party politician. A follower of Lord Acton who was independently wealthy, he never held an academic position, but knew the work of histo ...

claimed that Humboldt's idea of the state could only be realized in a "community of Humboldts".

Principles

''Humboldt's educational ideal'' developed around two central concepts of public education: The concept of the autonomous individual and the concept of

world citizenship Global citizenship is the idea that one's identity transcends geography or political borders and that responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader class: "humanity". This does not mean that such a person denounces or waives ...

. The university should be a place where autonomous individuals and

World Citizen Global citizenship is the idea that one's identity transcends geography or political borders and that responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader class: "humanity". This does not mean that such a person denounces or waives ...

are produced at or more specifically, produce themselves. * An autonomous individual is to be an individual who attains self-determination and responsibility through his use of reason. * "The '' Weltbürgertum'' is the collective bond, which connects autonomous individuals, irrespective of their social and cultural socialization: Humboldt says: 'To transform the world as much as possible into one's own person is, in the higher sense of the word, living'. The endeavor shall aim at working through the world comprehensively, and thereby unfold as a subject. To become a

citizen of the world Global citizenship is the idea that one's identity transcends geography or political borders and that responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader class: "humanity". This does not mean that such a person denounces or waives ...

means, to deal with the big questions of humanity: to seek peace, justice, and care about the exchange of cultures, other gender relationships or another relationship to nature." University education should not be job-focused, but educational training that is independent of economic interests.

Academic freedom Academic freedom is a moral and legal concept expressing the conviction that the freedom of inquiry by faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy as well as the principles of academia, and that scholars should have freedom to teac ...

describes independence of the university from outside governmental and economic constraints. The university is to evade government influence. Humboldt demands that the scientific institution of higher education should lose itself "from all forms within the state". Therefore, his concept of university planned, for example, that the University of Berlin should have its own goods in order to finance itself and thereby secure its economic independence.

also demands, next to independence of the university from outside governmental and economic constraints, the independence from within; i.e. free choice of study and free organization of studies. The University should therefore be a place of permanent public exchange between all involved in the scientific process. The integration of their knowledge shall be pursued with the help of philosophy. Philosophy is supposed to represent a kind of basic science, which allows members of different scientific disciplines to bring an exchange of their discovery and to link them together. ''Humboldt's educational ideal'' formed German University History decisively for a long period, albeit it was never realized practically in its entirety or cannot be realized. Great intellectual achievements of German science is linked to it.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (; ; 27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a German philosopher. He is one of the most important figures in German idealism and one of the founding figures of modern Western philosophy. His influence extends ...

Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...

Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; or ; 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher, prose poet, cultural critic, philologist, and composer whose work has exerted a profound influence on contemporary philosophy. He began his ...

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies explained as originating in conflicts ...

Theodor W. Adorno Theodor W. Adorno ( , ; born Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund; 11 September 1903 – 6 August 1969) was a German philosopher, sociologist, psychologist, musicologist, and composer. He was a leading member of the Frankfurt School of criti ...

and

Albert Einstein Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory ...

confessed themselves to it.

University concept

The University of Berlin, founded in 1810 under the influence of Wilhelm von Humboldt and renamed the

after World War II, is traditionally seen as the model institution of the 19th century. In fact, the German system emerged from innovations both before and after 1810. Among other scholars, Friedrich Schleiermacher,

Friedrich Carl von Savigny Friedrich Carl von Savigny (21 February 1779 – 25 October 1861) was a German jurist and historian. Early life and education Savigny was born at Frankfurt am Main, of a family recorded in the history of Lorraine, deriving its name from the cast ...

, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and

Barthold Georg Niebuhr Barthold Georg Niebuhr (27 August 1776 – 2 January 1831) was a Danish–German statesman, banker, and historian who became Germany's leading historian of Ancient Rome and a founding father of modern scholarly historiography. By 1810 Niebuhr wa ...

were appointed by Humboldt. ''Niemals wieder hatte ein deutscher Unterrichtsminister eine stolzere Berufungsliste vorzuweisen'' (Never again did any German Minister of Education have such a proud list of appointments to show).Peter Berglar: Wilhelm von Humboldt. Rowohlt, Reinbek 1970, ., p.56The Western Time of Ancient History: Historiographical Encounters with the Greek and Roman Pasts Alexandra Lianeri Cambridge University Press, 31.03.2011, p. 121 The university's features included a unity in teaching and research, the pursuit of higher learning in the philosophy faculty, freedom of study for students (''Lernfreiheit'', contrasted with the prescriptive curricula of the French system) and corporate autonomy for universities despite state funding. In addition to Humboldt, the group of reformers in Prussia included philosophers such as

Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Ka ...

and

Schleiermacher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (; 21 November 1768 – 12 February 1834) was a German Reformed theologian, philosopher, and biblical scholar known for his attempt to reconcile the criticisms of the Enlightenment with traditional ...

, and Berlin University was a focus of national cultural revival.Compare Anderson 2004 Humboldt was aware of other German philosophers educational concepts, such as

Kant Immanuel Kant (, , ; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aest ...

, Hegel and

was an important influence on the Berlin university.

Impact

These principles, in particular the idea of the research-based university, rapidly made an impact both in Germany and abroad. The Humboldtian university concept profoundly influenced higher education throughout central, eastern, and northern Europe. It was in competition with the post-Revolutionary French concept of the '' grandes écoles''. The French system lacked the freedom of German universities and instead imposed severe discipline and control over curriculum, awarding of degrees, conformity of views, and personal habits, instituting, for example, a ban on beards in 1852. Universities built on the Humboldtian model have provided students with the ability to address recalcitrant problems, leading to major scientific breakthroughs with important economic effects.Hautamäki A. & Ståhle P. (2012): ''Ristiriitainen tiedepolitiikkamme, Suuntana innovaatiot vai sivistys?'' he contradictory science policy. Towards innovation or civilization? Helsinki: Gaudeamus. The book also contains contributions by Ilkka Arminen, Riitta Hari, Sanna Lauslahti, Tarmo Lemola, Markku Mattila, Arto Mustajoki, Kaisa Oksannen and Saara Taalas.Geiger R. L. (2004). ''Knowledge and Money, Research Universities and the Paradox of the Marketplace''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Berlin Universitaet um 1850

American universities, starting with

University of Virginia The University of Virginia (UVA) is a public research university in Charlottesville, Virginia. Founded in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson, the university is ranked among the top academic institutions in the United States, with highly selective ad ...

and then

Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University (Johns Hopkins, Hopkins, or JHU) is a private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, Johns Hopkins is the oldest research university in the United States and in the western hemisphere. It consi ...

, were early to adopt several of the German educational and scientific principles, which during the 20th century were globally recognized as valuable.Berman E.P. (2012). ''Creating the Market University, How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine''. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. One flaw with the Humboldtian model is that unlike English universities, German universities traditionally did not provide housing for their students. Following in the footsteps of the great German universities, the

University of California The University of California (UC) is a public land-grant research university system in the U.S. state of California. The system is composed of the campuses at Berkeley, Davis, Irvine, Los Angeles, Merced, Riverside, San Diego, San Franci ...

adhered to that rule for over 80 years after its 1868 founding.{{cite book, last1=Kerr, first1=Clark, title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1, date=2001, publisher=University of California Press, location=Berkeley, isbn=9780520223677, page=93, url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Gold_and_the_Blue_Volume_One/jMEZ_47vXkAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA93&printsec=frontcover, access-date=11 November 2021, archive-date=11 July 2022, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711174321/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Gold_and_the_Blue_Volume_One/jMEZ_47vXkAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA93&printsec=frontcover, url-status=live After

Clark Kerr Clark Kerr (May 17, 1911 – December 1, 2003) was an American professor of economics and academic administrator. He was the first chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, and twelfth president of the University of California. B ...

became the first chancellor of

UC Berkeley The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public land-grant research university in Berkeley, California. Established in 1868 as the University of California, it is the state's first land-grant uni ...

in 1952, he shifted UC Berkeley from the German model to the English model in which universities assume responsibility for providing and operating student housing.

20th and 21st centuries

In the 1960s, the Humboldtian model of the university attracted renewed interest and was discussed internationally. The German sociologist and philosopher Jürgen Habermas actively promoted Humboldt's ideas.{{Failed verification, date=August 2017{{Failed verification, date=August 2017 In the 1970s, breakthrough discoveries in

biotechnology Biotechnology is the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. The term ''biotechnology'' was first used ...

and patent legislation favoring market-oriented research such as the

Bayh–Dole Act The Bayh–Dole Act or Patent and Trademark Law Amendments Act ( Pub. L. 96-517, December 12, 1980) is United States legislation permitting ownership by contractors of inventions arising from federal government-funded research. Sponsored by senat ...

in the US allowed for the creation of research partnerships between universities and industry, with the objective of rapidly bringing innovations to market. (The earliest such partnerships in the US, such as Stanford Research Park, date back to the postwar period.) A similar development has taken place in all industrial countries, based on proposals of the

OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; french: Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, ''OCDE'') is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate e ...

. This innovation of the "market university" as an economic engine, which first emerged in the US, diverges from Humboldt's principles. In a 2012 study, Ståhle and Hautamäki doubted the long-term sustainability of what they termed a "contradictory science policy", and argued for a return to a neo-Humboldtian approach to the university that would aim less for "innovation than for civilization" and reinstate the basic Humboldtian principles of academic freedom and autonomy for educational institutions, the pursuit of knowledge as a basis for both civilization and education (German ''

''), and unity in teaching and research. The implications of the Humboldtian approach and of the conflict between market-driven and idealistic approaches to higher education have led to ironic results in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Though elite private universities in the US do charge high tuition fees, both universities and their students also benefit from charitable donations as well as from government support. This combination of resources results in lavish funding that far exceeds the budgets of German universities, which are state-funded and mostly tuition-free.

Current debate

While during Humboldt's time universities mainly conducted state-organized academic research, there are now in Germany's

tertiary education Tertiary education, also referred to as third-level, third-stage or post-secondary education, is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank, for example, defines tertiary education as including univers ...

new forms of higher education, which now all have a scientific mission to research. However, Humboldt is still being discussed in Germany. Current problems and policy decisions regarding German education are addressed by a joint initiative called ''Konzertierte Aktion Internationales Marketing für den Bildungs- und Forschungsstandort Deutschland'' (KAIM). KAIM coordinates efforts of the partners, which include the state and federal government, universities, trade unions and industry associations. (The name of the group, KAIM, refers to earlier cooperative efforts, for example the {{Interlanguage link multi, Konzertierte Aktion, de at the end of the 1960s.) It tries to improve the international position of German education and research capacities, including marketing. Estimating that American universities receive US$10 billion annually from tuition fees and other financial contributions, which KAIM sees as an important source of revenue for the US, they have warned Germany to prepare for American attempts to market the American university model via the

World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates and facilitates international trade. With effective cooperation in the United Nations System, governments use the organization to establish, revise, and ...

in order to corner the international educational and research market. The Humboldt concept and its image are used by different and sometimes opposing parties in the German debate. In Germany, the

German Universities Excellence Initiative The Excellence Initiative of the German Council of Science and Humanities and the German Research Foundation (DFG) aims to promote cutting-edge research and to create outstanding conditions for young scholars at universities, to deepen cooperatio ...

was begun in 2005–06 to counter the perceived lack of cutting-edge achievement in both research and education in the state-funded universities. This initiative is primarily driven and funded at the federal level. The American tradition of large private grants and foundations for science has been mirrored in the 21st century, for example at

Freiberg University of Mining and Technology The Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg (abbreviation: TU Bergakademie Freiberg, TUBAF) is a public university of technology with currently 3655 students in the city of Freiberg, Saxony, Germany. Its focus is on exploration, mining & ...

. Freiberg University, one of the oldest mining schools in the world, narrowly escaped closure after German reunification. In 2007, it received a private grant in the triple-digit millions of

euro The euro ( symbol: €; code: EUR) is the official currency of 19 out of the member states of the European Union (EU). This group of states is known as the eurozone or, officially, the euro area, and includes about 340 million citizens . ...

s from the ''Dr.-Erich-Krüger-Stiftung'' (Dr. Erich Krüger Foundation), the largest grant ever made to a state-owned university in Germany. Peter Krüger, the Munich-based real estate and food retail entrepreneur who endowed the foundation, was born in

Freiberg Freiberg is a university and former mining town in Saxony, Germany. It is a so-called ''Große Kreisstadt'' (large county town) and the administrative centre of Mittelsachsen district. Its historic town centre has been placed under heritage c ...

and started an apprenticeship there in 1946, but was driven away by the

East German East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR; german: Deutsche Demokratische Republik, , DDR, ), was a country that existed from its creation on 7 October 1949 until its dissolution on 3 October 1990. In these years the state ...

communists because of his bourgeois background. He was made an honorary senator of the University of Mining and Technology in 2007.{{cite web , first=Christian , last=Möls , url=http://idw-online.de/pages/de/news211904 , title=Millionen-Stifter Peter Krüger wird Ehrensenator der TU Bergakademie Freiberg , publisher=

Informationsdienst Wissenschaft Informationsdienst Wissenschaft e.V. or idw (The Science Information Service) operates an Internet platform, which bundles the press reports and dates of important events from about 1,000 scientific institutions, including universities, technical c ...

, date=4 June 2007 , language=German , access-date=12 December 2014 , archive-date=13 December 2014 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213015134/http://idw-online.de/pages/de/news211904 , url-status=live Critics see in many current reforms, such as the Bologna process, a departure from Humboldt's ideal towards greater occupational studies with economic interests. Furthermore, it is criticized that the freedom of teaching is restricted by the Bologna process.

References

{{Reflist, 2

External links

Germany and the Humboldtian Model R. D. Anderson DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206606.003.0004
European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914 R. D. Anderson, 2004, {{ISBN, 9780198206606, Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2010 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206606.001.0001
Neo-Humboldtian university – a model of 21st century university. Antti Hautamäki's Sustainable innovation blog

Wilhelm von Humboldts Idee der Universität

Jürgen Hofmann: Welche Bedeutung hat das Humboldt'sche Erbe für unsere Zeit?
{{DEFAULTSORT:Humboldtian Model Of Higher Education Education in Germany History of Prussia History of academia