A ''hu'' is a type of wine vessel that has a pear-shaped cross-section. Its body swells and flares into a narrow neck, creating S-shaped profile. While it is similar to ''you'' vessel, ''hu'' usually has a longer body and neck. The shape of ''hu'' probably derives from its ceramic prototype prior to the Shang dynasty (1600-1045 BC). They usually have handles on the top or rings attached to each side of neck. Many extant hu lack lids while those excavated in such tombs as Fu Hao's indicate that this type of vessel might be originally made with lids. Although it is more often to see ''hu'' having a circular body, there also appears ''hu'' in square and flat rectangular forms, called ''fang hu'' and ''bian hu'

in Chinese. In addition, ''hu'' often came to be found in a pair or in a set together with other types of vessels. As wine had played an important part in the Shang ritual, the hu vessel might be placed in the grave of an ancestor as part of ritual in order to ensure a good relationship with ancestor's spirit.

Historical development

Shang Period (1600-1045 BC)

The bronze ''hu'' vessel has not been found prior to the Shang period. During this period, there are mainly two types of ''hu'' vessels. One has a small mouth and long neck; the other has wide mouth and flat ovoid cross-section. The décor on the ''hu'' in the Shang period was dominated by ''taotie'' motif and ''leiwen'' thunder pattern. Square form of ''hu'' began to appear in the end of the Shang dynasty. Because this form of ''hu'' is still uncommon at this time, its appearance in the tomb probably marks the owner's wealth and social status.

Western Zhou Period (1045-771 BC)

''Hu'' in the Zhou Dynasty, Western Zhou period was undergone several changes. Larger ''hu'' vessels seem to become more common after the first half of mid-Western Zhou. This is possibly a response to changes in ritual. Nevertheless, ''hu'' from the Western Zhou dynasty still mainly served as a wine vessel for the uses of ritual. In addition to the change in size, ''hus previous ''taotie'' design was gradually replaced by other types of animal and geometric décor. ''Hu'' found during this time were often not from tombs, but hoards left by Zhou people, who buried their precious possessions before nomadic people's invasion. Therefore, the vessels' burial context provides less clues about their functions and meanings.

Eastern Zhou Period (770-256 BC)

The East Zhou dynasty was subdivided into two periods: Spring and Autumn period(770-476 B.C.) and Warring States Period (475-221 B.C.). The East Zhou witnessed the decline of central government and the rise of feudal states. It is a time of political disunity. Powerful feudal lords barely paid allegiance to Zhou kings, whose domain drastically dwindled during this time. This political situation reflects in the development of ''hu'' vessels. With the rise of local power, the regional bronze making flourished on a large scale and played an important role in forming new styles. By the late Spring and Autumn period the decoration of the vessels in some regions had reflected the influence of animal style art from Central Asian nomads."Wine container (hu) (China) (1999.46a,b)"
In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2006) Accessed 29 September 2010 In addition, bronzes from places such as Xinzheng, Henan Province, Liyu Shanxi Province, and Houma, Shanxi Province in the Spring and Autumn period show regional ''hu'' style characterized by interlaced dragon motif. Another development of ''hu'' vessel is that although the vessel was still used for ancestral sacrifice, it began to take on a more secular and personal usage. This seems to be evidenced by the appearance of representational décor, beginning in the Warring State Period. ''Hu'' with such pictorial illustrations were often made out copper inlay. In addition, the shape of the vessel was occasionally modified, taking on a more square appearance. While the use of inlay in making bronze have appeared since the Shang dynasty, it was not until the Warring States period that saw the flowering of inlay style. Compared to other bronze vessels, the inlay technique was especially lavishly employed to create ''hu'' vessels. The sumptuous display of colors achieved by means of inlay became an essential feature of ''hu'' at this time.

Later developments

''Hu'' continued to be cast in the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

. They were still lavishly applied with gold inlay and decorated with interlace of zoomorphic and geometric patterns. However, after Han, they mainly appear in ceramic form. In addition, their function was no longer tied to ritual offerings and is utilitarian for daily life. ''Hu'' never disappears in Chinese history. Their production continues today.

Function and use

Most Chinese bronze vessels fall into two categories, food vessels or wine vessels. Hu vessels were used for holding wine, but not as drinking vessels.Watson, William. ''Ancient Chinese Vessels''. (Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle & Company), pp. 24 By the Zhou period, ''hu'' were one of the main vessels in use. During this period the vessels were also usually offered in pairs, and increased dramatically in size over their Shang predecessors. Two hu recovered from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng were each 39 in (99 cm) high and weighed 529 lb (240 kg) apiece. Hu were an important part of religious and cultural rituals, with many falling into the category of

Chinese ritual bronze Sets and individual examples of ritual bronzes survive from when they were made mainly during the Chinese Bronze Age. Ritual bronzes create quite an impression both due to their sophistication of design and manufacturing process, but also bec ...

s. Inscriptions in some vessels indicate that as early as the Shang Dynasty, the king would give bronze vessels as gifts to deserving vassals.Watson, William. ''Ancient Chinese Vessels''. (Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle & Company), pp. 23 By 900 BCE other officials had adapted this custom. Bronzes of all types, including hu, were given for a variety of occasions: as wedding gifts, funeral items, travel tokens, and even to commemorate real estate dealings.

Decor

The hu is a pear shaped vessel that has been found in both a round and square form. Examples have been discovered with a variety of decorative motifs. During the Shang Dynasty one hu would typically be offered, decorated with relatively simple taotie designs. Dragons, cattle and thunder patterns also appear on hu vessels during the Shang Dynasty. During the Zhou Dynasty the style of the vessel changed, with taotie being replaced by "heavy, rounded relief figures on a plain ground". Though, one example from the Late Zhou Period shows the entire vessel covered with images that correspond with everyday life. Silk worm farming, hunting, archery, and warfare are all represented. Interlacing dragon motifs were also popular during the Zhou period, as were "wave" designs. By the late Spring and Autumn period the decoration of the vessels in some regions had changed to reflect the influence of animal style art from Central Asian nomads. Hu of this type often used designs that were geometric versions of earlier Taotie motifs and employed copper inlay. During the Warring States Period the shape of the vessel was occasionally modified, taking on a more squared appearance. This squared version of a hu is referred to as a fāng hú. Another variation was the yu, which added a single handle arching above the lid of the vessel.

Symbolism

Some of the symbols in ''hu'' vessels are

Taotie The ''Taotie'' () is an ancient Chinese mythological creature that was commonly emblazoned on bronze and other artifacts during the 1st millennium BC. ''Taotie'' are one of the " four evil creatures of the world". In Chinese classical texts such a ...

or demon face, dragons, realistic animals and birds, and some of the abstract symbols like bowstrings meanings were unknown. The

or demon face and dragons were associated with land and rain, the farmers worshiped them for fertile land and receiving rain because three thousand years ago, rain was a concern to the farmers and they depended on the deities to bring rainfall to their land. The iconography in ''hu'' vessels were not just for the decorative aspects of the vessels since it was also important for the ritual ceremonies and their cult. The symbols in ''hu'' vessels also acted as protection against evil spirits and to being good fortune. If the symbols in the vessels were inaccurate then it was regarded as an unfortunate sin. In the

Warring States Period The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...

, a ''hu'' was found with pictorial decoration and it was also called the Baihuatan Hu and it was from a tomb in Chengdu. In this contained scenes of people hunting, having an archery tournament, preparation of food, women and children collecting mulberries from the mulberry tree with baskets, musicians, dancers and wild geese. In the lid of the vessel there were animals but there were no humans figures in those.

Historical and cultural references

Although the ''hu'' vessels have many cultural references to it, one of the most important one is that it was used as a "Wine Vessel" in many cultures. Hu vessel found in the tomb at Chengdu, was used for storing grain wine. In one of the tomb, the hu vessel was kept at the foot of the deceased and it contained weapons and tools and there was no trace of food offerings. Hu vessel called the Zhong Bo Hu was regarded as a bridal gift in the Middle Western Zhou Period and in the latter half of the Middle Western Zhou Period, large hu vessels were seen as fashionable rather than as a ritual vessel. The inscriptions of the Zhong Bo Hu revealed that it was for the use of the sons and grandsons of the brides. Hu vessels were also considered to be as heirloom vessels. In the Eastern Zhou Period the hu vessel was used for funerary practices. Hu vessel meant to the Shang culture as ritual vessels. Baihutan Hu vessel from the Warring States Period was used to convey a story about their daily activities as well as about the archery tournament and the theme of the story was about the activities of Nobility. Imagery such as the one depicted in the Baihuatan Hu vessel was never seen before, and they were extremely rare in the Zhou art.

Important examples

Shang Period

Bronze hu
*Period: Shang dynasty *Date: ca. 1300-1045 B.C. *Dimension: H: 35.9 cm
Bronze hu
*Period: Shang dynasty *Date: ca. 1300-1030 B.C. *Dimension: H: 34.8 cm Fu Hao hu *Period: late Shang period *Date: ca. 1300-1030 B.C. *Location: Tomb of Fu Hao, Anyang, Henan Province *Dimension: H: 51.5 cm Excavated from the tomb of Fu Hao, this hu vessel was decorated with seven registers. The ''taotie'' in these registers were raised in high relief against the flattened ''leiwen'' pattern. The vertical flange in the center and horizontal divisions among registers clearly separate the decorative details into compartments. These renderings of the vessel bring forth a clear view of ''taotie''. The name of Fu Hao was inscribed on the bottom of the bronze. This work exemplifies the style of hu in the late Shang period.

Western Zhou Period

Bronze hu
*Period: Early Western Zhou period *Date: ca. 1000 B.C. *Dimension: H: 41.3 cm
Hu wine vessel of Yin-gou
*Period: Mid-Western Zhou period *Date: ca. 900-800 B.C. *Dimension: H: 58.5 cm
Bronze hu
*Period: Late Western Zhou period *Date: ca. 800 B.C. *Dimension: H: 45.5 cm
Pair of Hu
*Period: Late Western Zhou period *Date: ca. late 800-700 B.C. *Dimension: H: 54.9 cm

Eastern Zhou Period

Bronze hu *Period: Spring and Autumn Period *Date: ca. 700 B.C. *Location: Jingshan Xian, Hubei Province *Dimension: H: 66 cm This bronze is one of pairs found in a hoard at Jingshan in Hubei Province. The body of the vessel was decorated with wave patterns flowing unbroken throughout the surface. The frieze on the neck was composed of two gui dragons in a symmetrical layout. The rendering of this vessel continues the bronze style of the late Western Zhou.

*Period: Spring and Autumn Period *Date: ca. 600-500 B.C. *Location: Xinzheng, Henan Province *Dimension: H: 118 cm
Bronze hu
*Period: Late Spring and Autumn Period *Date: ca. early 400 B.C. *Location: Liyu, Shanxi Province *Dimension: H: 44.3 cm
Bronze Fang (square) hu
*Period: Warring States Period *Date: ca. 300 B.C. *Location: Jincun, Henan Province *Dimension: H: 52.6 cm Bronze Fang (square) hu *Period: Warring States Period *Date: ca. 300 B.C. *Location: Shan Xian, Henan Province *Dimension: H: 53 cm Bronze hu *Period: Warring States Period *Date: ca. 400 B.C. *Location: possibly from Liuli, Henan Province *Dimension: H: 39.9 cm This bronze features the decor of hunting activities. Cast in flat relief against a plain background, the decor was divided into eight registers. Beginning from the top, the second and fifth registers represent animal masks in arabesque forms. Close to the rim of the vessel was a register filled with the image of bird. Other ornaments illustrate humans engaged in hunting activities. Holding various weapons, they are all in the motion to slay animals. This decor of the vessel introduces the style borrowed from Steppe culture of Central Asia.

Citations

References

# # Joseph Needham, Ling Wang (1954) ''Science and Civilisation in China.'' Cambridge University Press. # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "hu", accessed October 30, 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274091/hu. #Kidder, J. Edward. ''Early Chinese Bronzes in the City Art Museum of St. Louis''. (St. Louis: Washington University, 1956) pp. 27 #Rawson, Jessica. "Two Chinese Bronze Ritual Vessels (British Museum)" The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 114, No. 837 (Dec., 1972), pp. 870+872-873 #Watson, William. ''Ancient Chinese Vessels''. (Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle & Company)

External links

* *http://www.asia.si.edu/collections/searchresults.cfm *https://web.archive.org/web/20090807055601/http://www.shanghaimuseum.net:82/gate/big5/www.shanghaimuseum.net/cn/dcjx/qtq.jsp?fl=1&lb=2 {{DEFAULTSORT:Hu (Vessel) Chinese bronzeware