Hoysala emblem at Chennakeshava temple in Belur

Hoysala literature is the large body of literature in the

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

and

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...

languages produced by the

Hoysala Empire The Hoysala Empire was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur, but was later moved ...

(1025–1343) in what is now

southern India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territ ...

.Kamath (2001), p. 132 The empire was established by Nripa Kama II, came into political prominence during the rule of King

Vishnuvardhana Vishnuvardhana (r. 1108–1152 CE) was a king of the Hoysala Empire in what is today the modern state of Karnataka, India. He ascended the Hoysala throne after the death of his elder brother Veera Ballala I in c.1108. Originally a followe ...

(1108–1152), and declined gradually after its defeat by the

Khalji dynasty The Khalji or Khilji (Pashto: ; Persian: ) dynasty was a Turco-Afghan dynasty which ruled the Delhi sultanate, covering large parts of the Indian subcontinent for nearly three decades between 1290 and 1320.Kamath (2001), p. 129

Kannada literature Kannada literature is the corpus of written forms of the Kannada language, a member of the Dravidian family spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kannada script. Attestations in literature span one and a half ...

during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio-religious developments of the

Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

and

Veerashaiva Veerashaivism is a sect within the Shaivism fold of Hinduism. According to tradition, it was transmitted by ''Panchacharyas'', ( kn, ಪಂಚಾಚಾರ್ಯರು, paṃcācāraya from sa, पंचचार्य, pañcācārya), or five ...

faiths, and to a lesser extent that of the

Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

faith. The earliest well-known

brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests ( purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers ( ...

writers in Kannada were from the Hoysala court.Kamath (2001), pp. 133–134 While most of the courtly textual production was in Kannada,Pollock (2006), pp. 288–289 an important corpus of

monastic Monasticism (from Ancient Greek , , from , , 'alone'), also referred to as monachism, or monkhood, is a religion, religious way of life in which one renounces world (theology), worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic ...

literature relating to ''

Dvaita Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta ...

'' (dualistic) philosophy was written by the renowned philosopher

Madhvacharya Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the '' Dvaita'' (dualism) sch ...

in Sanskrit.Kamath (2001), p. 155 Writing Kannada literature in native

metres The metre (British spelling Despite the various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most notable va ...

was first popularised by the court poets. These metres were the ''sangatya'', compositions sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument; ''shatpadi'', six-line verses; ''ragale'', lyrical compositions in blank verse; and ''

tripadi Tripadi (Kannada, lit. ''tri'': three, ''pad'' or "adi": feet) is a native metre in the Kannada language dating back to c. 700 CE. Definition The ''tripadi'' consists of three lines, each differing from the others in the number of feet and mora ...

'', three-line verses.Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp. 164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p. 59 However, Jain writers continued to use the traditional '' champu'', composed of prose and verse.Sastri (1955), p. 358 Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets but also by noblemen, commanders, ministers, ascetics and saints associated with monasteries.Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 20–21; E.P.Rice (1921), pp. 43–45; Sastri (1955) p. 364

Kannada writings

Overview

Beginning with the 12th century, important socio-political changes took place in the

Deccan The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...

, south of the Krishna river. During this period, the Hoysalas, native

Kannadiga The Kannada people or Kannadigaru IAST">nowiki/>IAST:_Kannadadavaru_or_Kannadigas_(English_term).html" ;"title="IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowiki/>IAST: Kannadadavaru or Kannadigas (English term)">IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowik ...

s from the Malnad region (hill country in modern Karnataka) were on the ascendant as a political power.Quote:"A purely Karnataka dynasty" (Moraes 1931, p. 10)Rice, B. L. (1897), p. 335Natives of South Karnataka (Chopra 2003, p. 150 Part–1)Keay (2000), p. 251 They are known to have existed as chieftains from the mid-10th century when they distinguished themselves as subordinates of the

Western Chalukyas The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in th ...

of Kalyani.From the Marle inscription (Chopra 2003, p. 149, part–1) In 1116, Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana defeated the

Cholas The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE d ...

Tanjore Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the ...

and annexed Gangavadi (parts of modern southern Karnataka),Kamath (2001), p. 124 thus bringing the region back under native rule. In the following decades, with the waning of the Chalukya power, the Hoysalas proclaimed independence and grew into one of the most powerful ruling families of southern India.Thapar (2003), p. 368Keay (2000), p. 252 Consequently, literature in Kannada, the local language, flourished in the Hoysala empire.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 19 This literature can be broadly subdivided as follows: works dominated by the themes of Jain writings, contrasting works by Veerashaiva writers not belonging to the vachana poetic tradition,Sastri (1955), p. 361 rebuttals to Shaiva writings from Jain writers,Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366 early brahminical works (Vaishnava),Rudrabhatta and Naraharitirtha (Sastri, 1955, p. 364)Kavi Kama and Deva (Narasimhacharya 1988, p. 20) works from the birth of the

Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

(devotional) movement in the Kannada-speaking region, writings on secular topics,Rajaditya's ''ganita'' (mathematics) writings (1190) and Ratta Kavi's ''Rattasutra'' on natural phenomena are examples (Sastri 1955, pp. 358–359) and the first writings in native metres (''ragale'', ''sangatya'' and ''shatpadi'').Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 164, 203Rice E. P. (1921), p. 59Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1181 As in earlier centuries, Jain authors wrote about tirthankars (saints), princes and other personages important to the Jain religion. Jain versions of the Hindu epics such as the

Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages ...

and

Bhagavata The Bhagavata tradition, also called Bhagavatism, refers to an ancient religious sect that traced its origin to the region of Mathura. After its syncretism with the Brahmanical tradition of Vishnu, Bhagavatism became a pan-Indian tradition ...

(tales of Hindu god Krishna) were also written.Sastri (1955), p. 357 According to R. Narasimhacharya, a noted scholar on Kannada literature, more Jain writers wrote in Kannada than in any other Dravidian language during the "Augustan age" of Kannada literature, from the earliest known works to the 12th century.Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 61, 65 The Veerashaiva writers, devotees of the

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

god

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...

, wrote about his 25 forms in their expositions of

Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...

. Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...

and the Bhagavata.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 61 Breaking away from the old Jain tradition of using the ''champu'' form for writing Kannada literature,

Harihara Harihara (Sanskrit: हरिहर) is the fused sattvika characterisation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) from Hindu theology. Hari is the form of Vishnu, and Hara is the form of Shiva. Harihara is also known as Shankaranarayana ("Shankara" ...

penned poems in the ''ragale'' metre in ''Siva-ganada-ragalegalu'' (1160). His nephew Raghavanka established the ''shatpadi'' tradition by writing a unique version of the story of King

Harishchandra Harishchandra () is a legendary king of the Solar dynasty, who appears in several legends in texts such as the '' Aitareya Brahmana'', '' Mahabharata'', the '' Markandeya Purana'', and the '' Devi Bhagavata Purana''. The most famous of these s ...

in ''Harishchandra Kavya'' (1200). Sisumayana introduced the ''sangatya'' metre in his ''Anjanacharita'' and ''Tripuradahana'' (1235).Sastri (1955), pp. 359, 362Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 205 However, some scholars continued to employ Sanskritic genres such as ''champu'' (''Ramachandra Charitapurana''), ''shataka'' (100 verse compositions, ''Pampa sataka'') and ''ashtaka'' (eight line verse compositions, ''Mudige ashtaka''). The exact beginnings of the

haridasa The Haridasa Bhakti Sahitya devotional movement ( sampradaya) originated in Karnataka, India, after Madhvacharya, and spread to eastern states such as Bengal and Assam of medieval India. Over a span of nearly six centuries, several saints and ...

movement in the Kannada-speaking region have been disputed. Belur Keshavadasa, a noted ''

Harikatha ''Harikatha'' ( Kannada: ಹರಿಕಥೆ : ''Harikathe''; Telugu: హరికథ : ''Harikatha;'' Marathi: हरीपाठ '': Haripatha'', ), also known as ''Harikatha Kaalakshepam'' in Telugu and Tamil (), is a form of Hindu tradition ...

'' scholar, claimed in his book ''Karnataka Bhaktavijaya'' that the movement was inspired by saint Achalananda Dasa of Turvekere (in the modern

Tumkur district Tumakuru District is an administrative district in the state of Karnataka in India. It is the third largest district in Karnataka by land area with an area of 10,598 km2, and fourth largest by Population. It is a one-and-a-half-hour drive fr ...

) in the 9th century.Belur Keshavadasa in the book ''Karnataka Bhaktavijaya'' (Sahitya Akademi 1987, p. 881) However, neither the language used in Achalananda Dasa's compositions nor the discovery of a composition with the pen name "Achalanada Vitthala", which mentions the 13th-century philosopher Madhvacharya, lends support to the 9th-century theory. Naraharitirtha (1281), one of earliest disciples of Madhvacharya, is therefore considered the earliest haridasa to write Vaishnava compositions in Kannada.Sahitya Akademi 1987, p. 881 Secular topics were popular and included treatises on poetry (''Sringararatnakara'') and writings on natural sciences (''Rattasutra''), mathematics (''Vyavaharaganita''), fiction (''Lilavati''), grammar ('' Shabdamanidarpana''), rhetoric (''Udayadityalankara'') and others. Important contributions were made by some prominent literary families. One Jain family produced several authors, including Mallikarjuna, the noted anthologist (1245); his brother-in-law Janna (1209), the court poet of King Veera Ballala II; Mallikarjuna's son

Keshiraja Kēśirāja, also spelled Keshiraja ( kn, ಕೇಶಿರಾಜ), was a 13th-century Kannada grammarian, poet and writer. He is particularly known for authoring ''Shabdamanidarpana'', an authoritative work on Kannada grammar. According to Dravid ...

(1260), considered by D. R. Nagaraj, a scholar on literary cultures in history, to be the greatest theorist of Kannada grammar; and Sumanobana, who was in the court of King

Narasimha I Narasimha I ( kn, ಒಂದನೆ ನರಸಿಂಹ) (r. 1152–1173 CE) was a ruler of the Hoysala Empire. His victory over his overlord Western Chalukya Empire King Tailapa III paved the way for the declaration of independence by his succes ...

and was the maternal grandfather of Keshiraja.Nagaraj (2003), p. 364 Harihara (1160) and his nephew Raghavanka (1200), poets who set the trend for using native metres, came from a Shaiva family (devotees of the god Shiva). The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong, and this is seen even in their epigraphs, often written in polished and poetic language, rather than prose, with illustrations of floral designs in the margins.Ayyar (2006), p. 600 In addition to the Hoysala patronage, royal support was enjoyed by Kannada poets and writers during this period in the courts of neighbouring kingdoms of the western

. The Western Chalukyas, the Southern Kalachuris, the

Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the western part of t ...

and the Silharas of

Kolhapur Kolhapur () is a city on the banks of the Panchganga River in the southern part of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the administrative headquarter of the Kolhapur district. In, around 2 C.E. Kolapur's name was 'Kuntal'. Kolhapur is ...

are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68Kamath (2001) p. 143, pp. 114–115Masica (1991), pp. 45–46 Writers bilingual in Kannada and

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode ...

gained popularity which caused interaction between the two languages, a trend that continued into modern times. The Veerashiva canon of the Kannada language was translated or adapted into Telugu from this time period.Velchuru Narayana Rao in Pollock (2003), pp. 383–384 Palkuriki Somanatha (1195), a devotee of social reformer

Basavanna Basaveshwara, colloquially known as Basavanna, was a 12th-century CE Indian statesman, philosopher, poet, Lingayat social reformer in the Shiva-focussed bhakti movement, and a Hindu Shaivite social reformer during the reign of the Kalyani Chal ...

, is the most well-known of these bilingual poets. The Chola chieftain Nannechoda (c. 1150) used many Kannada words in his Telugu writings.Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 27–28 After the decline of the Hoysala empire, the

Vijayanagara empire The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana and Mahar ...

kings further supported writers in both languages. In 1369, inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha, Bhima Kavi translated the Telugu ''Basavapurana'' to Kannada,Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1182 and King Deva Raya II (c. 1425) had

Chamarasa Chamarasa (c. 1425) was a 15th century Virashaiva poet in the Kannada language, during the reign of Vijayanagar Empire, a powerful empire in Southern India during 14th - 16th centuries. A contemporary and competitor to a noted Brahmin Kannada poe ...

's landmark writing ''Prabhulingalile'' translated into Telugu and

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, na ...

.Shahitya Akademi (1987), p. 612 Many Veerashaiva writers in the court of the 17th century

Kingdom of Mysore The Kingdom of Mysore was a realm in South India, southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. From 1799 until 1950, it was a princely state, until 1947 in a subsidiary allia ...

were multilingual in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit while the

Srivaishnava Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who ...

(a sect of Vaishnavism) Kannada writers of the court were in competition with the Telugu and Sanskrit writers.Nagaraj (2003), pp. 377–379 Information from contemporary records regarding several writers from this period whose works are considered lost include: Maghanandi (probable author of ''Rama Kathe'' and guru of Kamalabhava of 1235), Srutakirti (guru of Aggala, and author of ''Raghava Pandaviya'' and possibly a ''Jina-stuti'', 1170), Sambha Varma (mentioned by Nagavarma of 1145),Rice Lewis (1985), p. xx Vira Nandi (''Chandraprabha Kavyamala'', 1175),Rice Lewis (1985), p. xxi Dharani Pandita (''Bijjala raya Charita'' and ''Varangana Charita''),Rice Lewis (1985), p. xxiii Amrita Nandi (''Dhanvantari Nighantu''), Vidyanatha (''Prataparudriya''), Ganeshvara (''Sahitya Sanjivana''),Rice Lewis (1985), xxiv Harabhakta, a Veerashaiva mendicant (''Vedabhashya'', 1300), and Siva Kavi (author of ''Basava Purana'' in 1330).Rice Lewis (1985), xxvi

Jain epics

Old Kannada inscription dated 1115 AD in the Lakshmi Devi temple at Doddagaddavalli

During the early 12th-century ascendancy of the Hoysalas, the kings of the dynasty entertained imperial ambitions. King Vishnuvardhana wanted to perform

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...

sacrifices befitting an emperor, and surpass his overlords, the Western Chalukyas, in military and architectural achievements. This led to his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. Around the same time, the well-known philosopher Ramanujacharya sought refuge from the Cholas in Hoysala territory and popularised the

Sri Vaishnava Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who ...

faith, a sect of Hindu Vaishnavism. Although Jains continued to dominate culturally in what is now the southern Karnataka region for a while, these social changes would later contribute to the decline of Jain literary output.Rice Lewis (1985), pp. xxiv–xxv The growing political clout of the Hoysalas attracted many bards and scholars to their court, who in turn wrote panegyrics on their patrons.Keay 2000, p. 251 Nagachandra, a scholar and the builder of the Mallinatha Jinalaya (a Jain temple in honour of the 19th Jain tirthankar, Mallinatha, in

Bijapur, Karnataka Bijapur, officially known as Vijayapura, is the district headquarters of Bijapur district of the Karnataka state of India. It is also the headquarters for Bijapur Taluk. Bijapur city is well known for its historical monuments of architectural i ...

), wrote ''Mallinathapurana'' (1105), an account of the evolution of the soul of the Jain saint. According to some historians, King

Veera Ballala I Veera Ballala I () succeeded Ereyanga as king of the Hoysala Empire. He was a Jain by faith. His rule was short and uneventful other than subduing the Chengalvas and the Santharas. He made some unsuccessful attempts to overthrow the overlordsh ...

was his patron.Kamath (2001), p. 133 Later, he wrote his ''magnum opus'', a Jain version of the Hindu epic

called ''Ramachandra Charitapurana'' (or ''Pampa Ramayana''). Written in the traditional ''champu'' metre and in the ''Pauma charia'' tradition of Vimalasuri, it is the earliest extant version of the epic in the Kannada language. The work contains 16 sections and deviates significantly from the original epic by

Valmiki Valmiki (; Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि, ) is celebrated as the harbinger-poet in Sanskrit literature. The epic ''Ramayana'', dated variously from the 5th century BCE to first century BCE, is attributed to him, based on the attributio ...

. Nagachandra represents King

Ravana Ravana (; , , ) is a rakshasa king of the island of Lanka, and the chief antagonist of the Hindu epic '' Ramayana'' and its adaptations. In the ''Ramayana'', Ravana is described to be the eldest son of sage Vishrava and rakshasi Kaikesi. He ...

, the villain of the Hindu epic, as a tragic hero, who in a moment of weakness commits the sin of abducting

Sita Sita (; ) also called as Janaki and Vaidehi is a Hindu goddess and the female protagonist of the Hindu epic, ''Ramayana''. She is the consort of Rama, the avatar of the god Vishnu, and is regarded as a form of Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi. She ...

(wife of the Hindu god Rama) but is eventually purified by her devotion to

Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bei ...

. In a further deviation, Rama's loyal brother

Lakshmana Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic '' Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja ( ...

(instead of Rama) kills Ravana in the final battle.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1180 Eventually, Rama takes ''jaina-diksha'' (converts to ''

Digambara monk Digambara Sādhu (also ''muni'', ''sādhu'') is a Sādhu in the Digambar tradition of Jainism, and as such an occupant of the highest limb of the four-fold '' sangha''. They are also called ''Nirgranth'' which means "one without any bonds". ...

''), becomes an ascetic and attains ''

nirvana ( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lamp Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colomb ...

'' (enlightenment). Considered a complementary work to the ''Pampa Bharatha'' of Adikavi Pampa (941, a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata), the work earned Nagachandra the honorific "Abhinava Pampa" ("new Pampa").Sastri (1955), pp. 357–358 Only in the Kannada language do Jain versions exist of the Hindu epics, the

and Ramayana, in addition to their brahminical version.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 66 Kanti (1108), known for her wit and humour, was one of the earliest female poets of the Kannada language and a contemporary of Nagachandra, with whom she indulged in debates and repartees.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1603 Rajaditya, a native of either Puvinabage or Raibhag (the modern Belgaum district), was in the Hoysala court during the days of King Veera Ballala I and King Vishnuvardhana.Rice E. P. (1921), p. 36 He wrote in easy verse on arithmetic and other mathematical topics and is credited with three of the earliest writings on mathematics in the Kannada language: ''Vyavaharaganita'', ''Kshetraganita'' and ''Lilavati''. Udayaditya, a Chola prince, authored a piece on rhetoric called ''Udayadityalankara'' (1150). It was based on Dandin's Sanskrit ''Kavyadarsa''.

Age of Harihara

(or Harisvara, 1160), who came from a family of ''karnikas'' (accountants) in

Hampi Hampi or Hampe, also referred to as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Hampi town, Vijayanagara district, east-central Karnataka, India. Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th&n ...

, was one of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the ''Vachana'' poetic tradition. He is considered one of the most influential Kannada poets of the Hoysala era. A non-traditionalist, he has been called "poet of poets" and a "poet for the masses". Kannada poetry changed course because of his efforts, and he was an inspiration for generations of poets to follow.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1411–1412, p. 1550 Impressed by his early writings, Kereya Padmarasa, the court poet of King

, introduced him to the king, who became Harihara's patron.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1548 A master of many metres, he authored the ''Girijakalyana'' ("Marriage of the mountain born goddess – Parvati") in the

Kalidasa Kālidāsa (''fl.'' 4th–5th century CE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and t ...

tradition, employing the ''champu'' style to tell a 10-part story leading to the marriage of the god

and

Parvati Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...

.Sastri (1955), pp. 361–362Narasimhacharya, (1988), p. 20 According to an anecdote, Harihara was so against eulogising earthly mortals that he struck his protégé Raghavanka for writing about King Harishchandra in the landmark work ''Harishchandra Kavya'' (c. 1200).Nagara (2003), p. 364 Harihara is credited with developing the native ''ragale'' metre.Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 551–552 The earliest poetic biographer in the Kannada language, he wrote a biography of Basavanna called ''Basavarajadevara ragale'', which gives interesting details about the protagonist while not always conforming to popular beliefs of the time.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 179Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 403–404 Ascribed to him is a group of 100 poems called the ''Nambiyanana ragale'' (also called ''Shivaganada ragale'' or ''Saranacharitamanasa'' – "The holy lake of the lives of the devotees") after the saint Nambiyana.Rice E. P. (1921), p. 60 In the ''sataka'' metre he wrote the ''Pampa sataka'', and in the ''ashtaka'' metre, the ''Mudige ashtaka'' in about 1200.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248 Poetic old Kannada inscription of Bopanna dated 1180 CE at Shravanabelagola

Poetic old Kannada inscription of Bopanna dated 1180 CE at Shravanabelagola

Famous among Vaishnava writers and the first brahmin writer (of the

Smartha The ''Smarta'' tradition ( sa, स्मार्त), also called Smartism, is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Mimamsa, ...

sect) of repute,

Rudrabhatta Rudrabhatta was an influential 12th-century Kannada poet in the court of the Hoysala Empire King Veera Ballala II(r.1173–1220 CE). According to Kannada language expert Narasimhacharya, the poet was also patronized by a minister of the King.Na ...

wrote ''Jagannatha Vijaya'' (1180) in a style considered a transition between ancient and medieval Kannada.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 203 Chandramouli, a minister in the court of King Veera Ballala II, was his patron. The writing, in ''champu'' metre, is about the life of the god

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...

. Leading to the god's fight with Banasura, it is based on an earlier writing, '' Vishnupurana''.Sastri (1955) p. 364 Nemichandra, court poet of King Veera Ballala II and the Silhara King Lakshmana of Kholapur, wrote ''Lilavati Prabandham'' (1170), the earliest available true fiction (and hence a novel) in Kannada, with an erotic bent. Written in the ''champu'' metre, with the ancient town

Banavasi Banavasi is an ancient temple town located near Sirsi in Karnataka. Banavasi was the ancient capital of the Kannada empire Kadamba that ruled all of modern-day Karnataka state. They were the first native empire to bring Kannada and Karnataka t ...

as the background, it narrates the love story of a Kadamba prince and a princess who eventually marry after facing many obstacles. The story is based on a c. 610 Sanskrit original called ''Vasavadatta'' by Subhandu.Rice E. P. (1921), p. 43 His other work, ''Neminathapurana'', unfinished on account of his death (and hence called ''Ardhanemi'' or "incomplete Nemi"), details the life of the 22nd Jain tirthankar

Neminatha Neminatha, also known as Nemi and Arishtanemi, is the twenty-second ''tirthankara'' (ford-maker) in Jainism. Along with Mahavira, Parshvanatha and Rishabhanatha, Neminatha is one of the twenty four ''tirthankaras'' who attract the most devot ...

while treating the life of the god Krishna from a Jain angle.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620; (1988), p. 1180 Palkuriki Somanatha, a native of modern Karnataka or Andhra Pradesh, is considered one of the foremost multi-lingual Shaiva (or Shiva-following) poets of the 12th and 13th centuries. Historians are divided about the time and place of his birth and death and his original faith. He was adept in the Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada languages. He was a devotee of Basavanna (the founder of the Veerashaiva movement), and all his writings propagate that faith.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4133 It is generally accepted that he was born a brahmin and later adopted the Shaiva faith, although according to the scholar Bandaru Tammayya he was born a ''Jangama'' (follower of the Shaiva faith). His time of birth has been identified as either the 12th centuryNarasimhacharya (1988), p. 20 or late 13th century.Seshayya in Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4133 In Kannada, his most important writings are ''Silasampadane'', ''Sahasragananama'' and ''Pancharatna''. His well-known poems, written in the ''ragale'' metre, are ''Basava ragale'', ''Basavadhya ragale'' and ''Sadguru ragale''. He is known to have humbled many Vaishnava poets in debates.Sastri (1955), p. 362 Other well-known personalities from the 12th century included several Jain writers. These include Aggala, who authored ''Chandraprabhapurana'' (1189), an account of the life of the eighth Jain tirthankar Chandraprabha; Sujanottamsa, who wrote a

panegyric A panegyric ( or ) is a formal public speech or written verse, delivered in high praise of a person or thing. The original panegyrics were speeches delivered at public events in ancient Athens. Etymology The word originated as a compound of gr ...

on Gomateshwara of Shravanabelagola; and Vritta Vilasa, who authored ''Sastra sara'' and ''Dharmaparikshe'' (1160). The latter was Vilasa's version of the Sanskrit original of the same name written by Amitagati c. 1014. In this ''champu'' writing, the author narrates the story of two

Kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the co ...

princess who went to

Benares Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world. * * * * The city has a syncretic tra ...

and exposed the vices of the gods after discussions with the brahmins there. The author questions the credibility of

Hanuman Hanuman (; sa, हनुमान, ), also called Anjaneya (), is a Hindu god and a divine '' vanara'' companion of the god Rama. Hanuman is one of the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He is an ardent devotee of Rama and on ...

(the Hindu monkey god) and the

Vanara In Hindu, Vanara ( sa, वानर, , forest-dwellers) are either monkeys, apes, or a race of forest-dwelling people. In the epic the ''Ramayana'', the Vanaras help Rama defeat Ravana. They are generally depicted as humanoid apes, or human-l ...

s (monkey-like humanoids in the Hindu epic Ramayana). Although controversial, the work sheds useful information on contemporary religious beliefs.Rice B. L. (1897), p. 499Rice E. P. (1921), pp. 37 Kereya Padmarasa, a Veerashaiva poet patronised by King Narasimha I, wrote ''Dikshabodhe'' in the ''ragale'' metre in 1165. He would later become the protagonist of a biographical work called ''Padmarajapurana'' written by his descendant Padmanaka in c. 1400.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4003 The brahmin poet Deva Kavi authored a romance piece called ''Kusumavali'' (1200), and brahmin poet Kavi Kama (12th century) authored a treatise called ''Sringara-ratnakara'' on the ''rasa'' (flavor) of poetical sentiment.Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 20, 62 Sumanobana (1170) was a poet-grammarian and the ''Katakacharya'' ("military teacher") under King Narasimha I. He was also a priest in Devagiri, the Seuna Yadava capital.Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1475–1476

Jain–Veerashaiva conflict

Old-Kannada inscription at Arasikere Ishwara temple

Harihara's nephew and protégé, the dramatic poet Raghavanka of

, whose style is compared to that of 10th-century poet Ranna, was the first to establish the ''shatpadi'' metre in Kannada literature in the epic ''Harishchandra Kavya'' (1200). According to L. S. Seshagiri Rao, it is believed that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been interpreted in this way. The writing is an original in tradition and inspiration that fully develops the potential of the ''shatpadi'' metre.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 207 The narration has many noteworthy elegiac verses such as the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva from snake bite.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149 The very writing that made Raghavanka famous was rejected by his guru, Harihara. His other well-known writings, adhering to strict Shaiva principles and written to appease his guru, are the ''Siddharama charitra'' (or ''Siddharama Purana''), a larger than life stylistic eulogy of the compassionate 12th-century Veerashaiva saint, Siddharama of Sonnalige; the ''Somanatha charitra'', a propagandist work that describes the life of saint Somayya (or Adaiah) of Puligere (modern

Lakshmeshwar Lakshmeshwara is a town, and newly created Taluk place along with Gajendragad in Gadag district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is about 40 km from Gadag and 55 km from Hubli. It is an agricultural trading town. Lakshmeshwara T ...

), his humiliation by a Jain girl and his revenge; the ''Viresvara charita'', a dramatic story of the blind wrath of a Shaiva warrior, Virabhadra; the ''Hariharamahatva'', an account of the life of Harisvara of Hampi; and ''Sarabha charitra''. The last two classics are considered lost. In 1209, the Jain scholar, minister, builder of temples and army commander Janna wrote, among other classics, ''Yashodhara Charite'', a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing with

sadomasochism Sadomasochism ( ) is the giving and receiving of pleasure from acts involving the receipt or infliction of pain or humiliation. Practitioners of sadomasochism may seek sexual pleasure from their acts. While the terms sadist and masochist refe ...

transmigration of the soul Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a ...

, passion gone awry and cautionary morals for human conduct. The writing, although inspired by Vadiraja's Sanskrit classic of the same name, is noted for its original interpretation, imagery and style.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4629 In one story, the poet tells of the infatuation of a man for his friend's wife. Having killed his friend, the man abducts the wife, who dies of grief. Overcome by repentance, he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman.Rice E. P. (1921), pp. 43–44 The stories of infatuation reach a peak when Janna writes about the attraction of Amrutamati, the queen, to the ugly mahout Ashtavakra, who pleases the queen with kicks and whip lashes. This story has piqued the interest of modern researchers.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 204 In honour of this work, Janna received the title ''Kavichakravarthi'' ("Emperor among poets") from his patron, King Veera Ballala II. His other classic, ''Anathanatha Purana'' (1230), is an account of the life of the 14th tirthankar Ananthanatha.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620Nagaraj (2003), p. 377

Andayya Andayya (or Andaiah, Āṇḍayya, Kannada: ಆಂಡಯ್ಯ) was a notable 13th-century Kannada writer during the rule of the Hoysala empire. Andayya was a Jain by faith and came from a family of accountants. His most important extant wor ...

, taking a non-conformist path that was never repeated in Kannada literature, wrote ''Madana Vijaya'' ("Triumph of cupid", 1217–1235) using only pure Kannada words (''desya'') and naturalised Sanskrit words (''tadbhava'') and totally avoiding assimilated Sanskrit words (''tatsamas''). This is seen by some as a rebuttal meant to prove that writing Kannada literature without borrowed Sanskrit words was possible.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 170 The poem narrates the story of the moon being imprisoned by the god Shiva in his abode in the

Himalaya The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 10 ...

s. In his anger, Kama (Cupid, the god of love, also called Manmata) assailed Shiva with his arrows only to be cursed by Shiva and separated from his beloved. Kama then contrived to rid himself of Shiva's curse. The work also goes by other names such as ''Sobagina Suggi'' ("Harvest of Beauty"), ''Kavane Gella'' ("Cupid's Conquest") and ''Kabbigara-kava'' ("Poets defender").Sastri (1955), p. 359 Kama has an important place in Jain writings even before Andayya. The possibility that this writing was yet another subtle weapon in the intensifying conflict between the dominant JainsNarasimhacharya (1988), p. 65 and the

s, whose popularity was on the rise, is not lost on historians.Nagaraj (2003), p. 366 Mallikarjuna, a Jain ascetic, compiled an anthology of poems called ''Suktisudharnava'' ("Gems from the poets") in 1245 in the court of King Vira Someshwara.Rice E.P. (1921), p. 44–45 Some interesting observations have been made by scholars about this important undertaking. While the anthology itself provides insight into poetic tastes of that period (and hence qualifies as a "history of Kannada literature"), it also performs the function of a "guide for poets", an assertive method of bridging the gap between courtly literary intelligentsia and folk poetry.Nagaraj (2003), p. 363 Being a guide for "professional intellectuals", the work, true to its nature, often includes poems eulogising kings and royalty but completely ignoring poems of the 12th-century vachana canon (Veerashaiva folk literature). However, the selection of poems includes contributions from Harihara, the non-conformist Veerashaiva writer. This suggests a compromise by which the author attempts to include the "rebels". Other notable writers of the early 13th century were Bhanduvarma, author of ''Harivamsabhyudaya'' and ''Jiva sambhodana'' (1200), the latter bearing on morals and renunciation, and written addressing the soul; Balachandra Kavi Kandarpa, the author of the Belgaum fort inscription who claimed to be "master of four languages";Karnataka State Gazetteer: Belgaum (1973), p.721, Bangalore, Director of Print, Stationery and Publications at the Government Press Maghanandycharya, the author of an extinct commentary on the Jain theological work ''Sastrasara Samuccaya-tiku'' (1209) for which there are references, and the available commentary called ''padarthasara'' giving a complete explanation of Sanskrit and Prakrit authoritative citations;Singh (2001), p. 975Sahitya Akademi (1987), p.761 Hastimalla, who wrote ''Purvapurana''; Chandrama, author of ''Karkala Gomateshvara charite'',Singh (2001), p. 979 and Sisumayana, who introduced a new form of composition called ''sangatya'' in 1232. He wrote an allegorical poem called ''Tripuradahana'' ("Burning of the triple fortress") and ''Anjanacharita''. The latter work was inspired by Ravisena's Sanskrit ''Padma charitra''. Somaraja, a Veerashaiva scholar, wrote a eulogy of Udbhata, the ruler of Gersoppa, and called it ''Sringarasara'' (or ''Udbhatakavya'', 1222).Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 21 Other Jain writers were Parsva Pandita, author of ''Paravanathapurana'', and Gunavarma II, the author of the story of the ninth Jain tirthankar Pushpadanta called ''Pushpadanta purana'' (both were patronised by the Ratta kings of Saundatti).E.P.Rice (1921), pp. 43–44Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 20–21 Polalva Dandanatha, a commander, minister, and the builder of the

Harihareshwara temple Harihareshwara Temple is a Hindu temple situated in Harihar, Karnataka state, India. The temple was built in c. 1223–1224 CE by Polalva, a commander and minister of the Hoysala Empire King Vira Narasimha II. In 1268 CE, Soma, a commander ...

in Harihar, wrote ''Haricharitra'' in 1224. He was patronised by King Veera Ballala II and his successor, King Vira Narasimha II. Puligere Somanatha authored a book on morals called ''Somesvarasataka''.

Consolidation of grammar

Old Kannada inscription dated 1234 AD in the Mallikarjuna temple at Basaralu

was a notable writer and grammarian of the 13th century. He came from a family of famous poet-writers. Although five of Keshiraja's writings are not traceable, his most enduring work on Kannada grammar, '' Shabdamanidarpana'' ("Mirror of Word Jewels", 1260), is available and testifies to his scholarly acumen and literary taste.E.P.Rice (1921), p. 45Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1476 True to his wish that his writing on grammar should "last as long as the sun, the moon, the oceans and the

Meru Meru may refer to: Geography Kenya * Meru, Kenya, a city in Meru County, Kenya ** Meru County, created by the merger of *** Meru Central District *** Meru North District *** Meru South District * Meru National Park, a Kenyan wildlife park Tanz ...

mountain lasted", ''Shabdamanidarpana'' is popular even today and is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar. It is prescribed as a textbook for students of graduate and post-graduate studies in the Kannada language. Although Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar (of the Katantra school) and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar (by King

Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...

of the 9th century and grammarian

Nagavarma II Nagavarma II (mid-11th or mid-12th century) was a Kannada language scholar and grammarian in the court of the Western Chalukya Empire that ruled from Basavakalyan, in modern Karnataka state, India. He was the earliest among the three most notabl ...

of 1145), his work has originality. Keshiraja's lost writings are ''Cholapalaka Charitam'', ''Sri Chitramale'', ''Shubhadraharana'', ''Prabodhachandra'' and ''Kiratam'' (or ''Kiratarjuniyam''). A major development of this period that would have a profound impact on Kannada literature even into the modern age was the birth of the

Haridasa The Haridasa Bhakti Sahitya devotional movement ( sampradaya) originated in Karnataka, India, after Madhvacharya, and spread to eastern states such as Bengal and Assam of medieval India. Over a span of nearly six centuries, several saints and ...

("servants of

Hari Hari ( sa, हरि) is among the primary epithets of the Hindu preserver deity Vishnu, meaning 'the one who takes away' (sins). It refers to the one who removes darkness and illusion, the one who removes all obstacles to spiritual progre ...

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...

") movement. This devotional movement, although reminiscent in some ways of the Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century (which produced Vachana poetry and taught devotion to the god Shiva), was in contrast intimately devoted to the Hindu god Vishnu as the supreme God.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–193 The inspiration behind this movement was the philosophy of

Udupi Udupi (alternate spelling Udipi; also known as Odipu) is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. Udupi is situated about north of the educational, commercial and industrial hub of Mangalore and about west of state capital Bangalore by road. ...

. Naraharitirtha (1281) is considered the first well-known haridasa and composer of

devotional songs in Kannada. Before his induction into the Madhva order, he had served as a minister in the court of Kalinga (modern Orissa). The Vaishnava poetry however disappeared for about two centuries after Naraharitirtha's death before resurfacing as a popular form of folk literature during the rule of the

Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana and Mahar ...

.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 192 Only three of Naraharitirtha's compositions are available today.Shiv Prakash (1997), p. 195 Other writers worthy of mention are Mahabala Kavi, the author of ''Neminathapurana'' (1254), an account of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha, and Kumudendu, author of a Jain version of the epic Ramayana in ''shatpadi'' metre called ''Kumudendu Ramayana'' in 1275. The effort was influenced by ''Pampa Ramayana'' of Nagachandra.Rice E. P. (1921), p. 45 Kumara Padmarasa, son of Kereya Padmarasa, wrote the ''Sananda Charitre'' in ''shatpadi'' metre.Sahitya Academi (1992), p. 4003 Ratta Kavi, a Jain noble, wrote a quasi-scientific piece called ''Rattasutra'' (or ''Rattamala'') in 1300. The writing bears on natural phenomena such rain, earthquakes, lightning, planets and omens. A commentary on the ''Amara Khosa'', considered useful to students of the language, called ''Amara Khosa Vyakhyana'' was written by the Jain writer Nachiraja (1300).Rice E.P. (1921), p.112 Towards the end of the Hoysala rule, Nagaraja wrote ''Punyasrava'' in 1331 in ''champu'' style, a work that narrates the stories of

puranic Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...

heroes in 52 tales and is said to be a translation from Sanskrit.

Sanskrit writings

The Vaishnava movement in the Kannada-speaking regions found momentum after the arrival of the philosopher Ramanujacharya (1017–1137). Fleeing possible persecution from the Chola King (who was a Shaiva), Ramanujacharya sought refuge initially in Tondanur and later moved to Melkote.Kamath (2001), p. 151 But this event had no impact on Vaishnava literature in Hoysala lands at that time. However, the teachings of Madhvacharya (1238–1317), propounder of the ''Dvaita'' philosophy, did have a direct impact on Vaishnava literature, in both the Sanskrit and Kannada languages. This body of writings is known as ''haridasa sahitya'' (haridasa literature). Born as Vasudeva in

Pajaka Pajaka is a village in Udupi Taluk and district of Karnataka state in India. Pajaka is the place where Dvaita philosopher Sri Madhvacharya was born. The place is near Kunjarugiri Durga temple. The importance of Pajaka kshetra is also narr ...

village near Udupi in 1238, he learnt the

Veda upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

s and

Upanishad The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

s under his guru Achyutapreksha. He was initiated into ''

sanyasa ''Sannyasa'' (Sanskrit: संन्यास; IAST: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the Hindu system of four life stages known as '' As ...

'' (asceticism) after which he earned the name Madhvacharya (or Anandatirtha).Kamath (2001), p. 154 Later, he disagreed with the views of his guru and began to travel India. He successfully debated with many scholars and philosophers during this time and won over Naraharitirtha, a minister in Kalinga, who would later become Madhvacharya's first notable disciple. Unlike Adi Shankaracharya (788–820) who preached

Advaita ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ( ...

philosophy (monism) and Ramanujacharya who propounded

Vishishtadvaita Vishishtadvaita (IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (liter ...

philosophy (qualified monism), Madhvacharya taught the Dvaita philosophy (dualism).Kamath (2001), pp. 150, 155 Madhvacharya taught complete devotion to the Hindu god Vishnu, emphasising ''Jnanamarga'' or the "path of knowledge", and insisted that the path of devotion "can help a soul to attain elevation" (''Athmonathi''). He was however willing to accept devotion to other Hindu deities as well.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 193 He wrote 37 works in Sanskrit including ''Dwadasha Sutra'' (in which his devotion to the god Vishnu found full expression), ''Gita Bhashya'', ''Gita Tatparya Nirnaya'', ''Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya'', ''Bhagavata Tatparya Nirnaya'', ''Mayavada Khandana'' and ''Vishnu Tattwa Nirnaya''. To propagate his teachings he established eight monasteries near

, the Uttaradhi monastery, and the Raghavendra monastery in Mantralayam (in modern

Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...

) and

Nanjanagud Nanjangud, officially known as Nanjanagudu, is a town in the Mysuru district of Indian state of Karnataka. Nanjangud lies on the banks of the river Kapila (also called Kabini), 23 km from the city of Mysore. Nanjangud is famous for the Sr ...

(near modern

Mysore Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude o ...

).Kamath (2001), pp. 155–156 The writings of Madhvacharya and Vidyatirtha (author of ''Rudraprshnabhashya'') may have been absorbed by Sayanacharya, brother of

Vidyaranya Vidyaranya ( IAST: Vidyāraṇya), usually identified with Mādhavācharya (not to be confused with Madhvāchārya (13th c.)), was Jagadguru of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham from ca. 1374-1380 until 1386 - according to tradition, after ordina ...

, the patron saint of the founders of the Vijayanagara empire in the 14th century.K. T. Pandurangi in Kamath 2001, pp. 132–133 Bharatasvamin (who was patronised by Hoysala King Ramanatha) wrote a commentary on ''Samaveda'',Sastri (1955), p. 310 Shadgurusishya wrote commentary on ''Aitareya Brahmana'' and ''Aranyaka'', and Katyayana wrote ''Sarvanukramani''. A family of hereditary poets whose names have not been identified held the title "Vidyachakravarti" (poet laureate) in the Hoysala court. One of them wrote ''Gadyakarnamrita'', a description of the war between Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II and the Pandyas, in the early 13th century.Sastri (1955), p. 316 His grandson with the same title, in the court of king Veera Ballala III, composed a poem called ''Rukminikalyana'' in 16 ''kandas'' (chapters) and wrote commentaries (on poetics) on the ''Alankarasarvasva'' and ''Kavyaprakasa''. Kalyani Devi, a sister of Madhvacharya, and Trivikrama, his disciple, wrote commentaries on the Dvaita philosophy. To Trivikrama is ascribed a poem narrating the story of Usha and Aniruddha called ''Ushaharana''. Narayana Pandita composed ''Madhwavijaya'', ''Manimanjari'' and a poem called ''Parijataharana''. The Jain writer Ramachandra Maladhari authored ''Gurupanchasmriti''.

Literature after the Hoysalas

Literary developments during the Hoysala period had a marked influence on Kannada literature in the centuries to follow. These developments popularised folk metres which shifted the emphasis towards ''desi'' (native or folk) forms of literature.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 167 With the waning of Jain literary output, competition between the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava writers came to the fore. The Veerashaiva writer

(author of ''Prabhulingalile'', 1425) and his Vaishnava competitor Kumaravyasa (''Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari'', 1450) popularised the ''shatpadi'' metric tradition initiated by Hoysala poet Raghavanka, in the court of Vijayanagara King Deva Raya II.Sastri (1955), p. 364

Lakshmisa Lakshmisa (or Lakshmisha, kn, ಲಕ್ಷ್ಮೀಶ) was a noted Kannada language writer who lived during the mid-16th or late 17th century. His most important writing, ''Jaimini Bharata'' is a version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The writi ...

, the 16th–17th century writer of epic poems, continued the tradition in the ''Jaimini Bharata'', a work that has remained popular even in the modern period.Sahitya Akademi, (1992), p. 4004 The ''tripadi'' metre, one of the oldest in the Kannada language (

Kappe Arabhatta Kappe Arabhatta ( kn, ಕಪ್ಪೆ ಅರಭಟ್ಟ) was a Chalukya warrior of the 8th century who is known from a Kannada verse inscription, dated to c. 700 CE, and carved on a cliff overlooking the northeast end of the artificial lake in ...

inscription of 700), which was used by

Akka Mahadevi Akka Mahadevi ಅಕ್ಕ ಮಹಾದೇವಿ (c.1130–1160) was one of the early female poets of the Kannada literature and a prominent person in the Lingayat Shaiva sect in the 12th century. Her 430 extant Vachana poems (a form of spont ...

(''Yoganna trividhi'', 1160), was popularised in the 16th century by the mendicant poet Sarvajna.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4392 Even Jain writers, who had dominated courtly literature throughout the classical period with their Sanskritic ''champu'' style, began to use native metres. Among them, Ratnakaravarni is famous for successfully integrating an element of worldly pleasure into asceticism and for treating the topic of

eroticism Eroticism () is a quality that causes sexual feelings, as well as a philosophical contemplation concerning the aesthetics of sexual desire, sensuality, and romantic love. That quality may be found in any form of artwork, including painting, ...

with discretion in a religious epic written in the native ''sangatya'' metre (a metre initiated by Hoysala poet Sisumayana), his ''magnum opus'', the ''Bharatadesa Vaibhava'' (c. 1557).Nagaraj (2003), p. 373Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 453–454 Though the Vaishnava courtly writings in Kannada began with the Hoysala poet Rudrabhatta and the devotional song genre was initiated by Naraharitirtha, the Vaishnava movement began to exert a strong influence on Kannada literature only from the 15th century on. The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other: the

Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests ( purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers ( ...

commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty, and the

(devotion) writers (also known as haridasas) who played no role in courtly matters. The Bhakti writers took the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres such as the ''kirthane'' (a musical composition with refrain, based on tune and rhythm), the ''suladi'' (a composition based on rhythm) and the ''ugabhoga'' (a composition based on melody). Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well known among the Brahmin commentators, while

Purandara Dasa Purandara Dasa ( IAST: Purandara dāsa) ( 1470 – 1565) was a Haridasa philosopher and a follower of Madhwacharya 's Dwaitha philosophy -saint from present-day Karnataka, India. He was a composer, singer and one of the chief founding-pr ...

and

Kanaka Dasa Kanaka Dasa (1509–1609) was a Haridasa saint and philosopher, popularly called Daasashreshta Kanakadasa (ದಾಸಶ್ರೇಷ್ಠ ಕನಕದಾಸ). He was a renowned composer of Carnatic music, poet, reformer and musician. He is kn ...

were the most notable of the Bhakti writers.Nagaraj (2003), p. 368Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 193–194 The philosophy of

, which originated in the Kannada-speaking region in the 13th century, spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries. The itinerant haridasas, best described as mystic saint-poets, spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada, winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of ''jnana'' (enlightenment), ''bhakti'' (devotion) and ''vairagya'' (detachment).Sharma (1961), p. 514–515Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–196 Vachana poetry, developed in reaction to the rigid caste-based Hindu society, attained its peak in popularity among the under-privileged during the 12th century. Though these poems did not employ any regular metre or rhyme scheme, they are known to have originated from the earlier ''tripadi'' metrical form.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 169 The Veerashaivas, who wrote this poetry, had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period (14th century).Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 188 Court ministers and nobility belonging to the faith, such as Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya, not only wrote literature but also patronised talented writers and poets.Rice E.P. (1921), p. 70Sastri (1955), p. 363 Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries began to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems, originally written on palm leaf manuscripts. Because of the cryptic nature of the poems, the anthologists added commentaries to them, thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 761 An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit, bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic (''marga'' or mainstream as opposed to ''desi'' or folk) cultural order.

Notes

References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

* * {{featured article Hoysala Empire Kannada literature Indian literature Literature of Karnataka History of literature in India