Hmong in Wisconsin
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Hmong Americans Hmong Americans ( RPA: ''Hmoob Mes Kas'', Pahawh Hmong: "") are Americans of Hmong ancestry. Many Hmong Americans immigrated to the United States as refugees in the late 1970s. Over half of the Hmong population from Laos left the country, or at ...
are the largest Asian ethnic group in the U.S. state of
Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
.Asian Americans in Wisconsin
"
Wisconsin Department of Health Services The Wisconsin Department of Health Services (WisDHS) is a governmental agency of the U.S. state of Wisconsin responsible for maintaining public health. It administers a wide range of services in the state and at state institutions, regulates hosp ...
. Retrieved on March 1, 2014.
Allies of the United States in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War and later stages of the
Laotian Civil War The Laotian Civil War (1959–1975) was a civil war in Laos which was waged between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government from 23 May 1959 to 2 December 1975. It is associated with the Cambodian Civil War and the Vietnam War ...
, they started seeking asylum as political refugees after the communist takeover in both nations in 1975. Hmong in Vietnam and Laos were subjected to targeted attacks in both countries, and tens of thousands were killed, imprisoned or forcibly relocated following the war. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, there were 49,240 Hmong persons living in Wisconsin, making up 0.9% of the state's population. As of 2000, there were 33,791 Hmong persons in the state, making up 0.63% of the total state population and 32.9% of its Asian population. In 1990 the 16,373 Hmong persons in Wisconsin made up 0.33% of the state's population. From 1990 to 2000, the Hmong population in Wisconsin increased by 106%, as immigration continued from Hmong refugee camps in Thailand. The state's White- American population increased in that time by 4.8%.Karon, Jeanette and Dan Veroff.
Wisconsin's Hmong Population: Census 2000 Population and Other Demographic Trends...

Archive
. University of Wisconsin Extension & Applied Population Laboratory (Source: 2000 Census of Population and Housing,
U.S. Census Bureau The United States Census Bureau (USCB), officially the Bureau of the Census, is a principal agency of the U.S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureau is part of the ...
). p. VII. Retrieved on March 1, 2014.
Of the U.S. states, Wisconsin has the third-largest Hmong population, after California and Minnesota. As of 2014, the largest Hmong populations in the state are located in Green Bay,
La Crosse La Crosse is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of La Crosse County, Wisconsin, La Crosse County. Positioned alongside the Mississippi River, La Crosse is the largest city on Wisconsin's western border. La Crosse's populat ...
,
Milwaukee Milwaukee ( ), officially the City of Milwaukee, is both the most populous and most densely populated city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of Milwaukee County. With a population of 577,222 at the 2020 census, Milwaukee is ...
, Sheboygan, and Wausau.


History

Hmong people first arrived in the upper
Midwest The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the Midwest or the American Midwest, is one of four Census Bureau Region, census regions of the United States Census Bureau (also known as "Region 2"). It occupies the northern central part of ...
in 1975 or 1976 following the United States withdrawal from the
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by #Names, other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vie ...
. They were seeking asylum in the United States, as many had worked or served in fighting for U.S. forces in
Laos Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist ...
during the " secret war".Burt, p
111
By 1980 there were 408 Hmong people in the state. Originally only Hmong veterans were allowed to immigrate.Zaniewski and Rosen, p
14
Churches and social service agencies initially settled Southeast Asian refugees, most of them Hmong, along with some
Vietnamese Vietnamese may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Vietnam, a country in Southeast Asia ** A citizen of Vietnam. See Demographics of Vietnam. * Vietnamese people, or Kinh people, a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to Vietnam ** Overse ...
and
Laotian people This is a demographics, demography of the population of Laos including population density, Ethnic group, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Laos' popul ...
, in Wausau. According to the 1980 U.S. Census, Wausau had fewer than 1% non-White people. There were several dozen Asian immigrants in 1978. By 1980 200 Southeast Asian refugees had settled in Wausau. This increased to 400 in 1982 and 800 in 1984. Beck, Roy.
The Ordeal of Immigration in Wausau"


. ''
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''. April 1994. Retrieved March 1, 2014.
Over time, the Hmong became the largest ethnic minority in the city.In Wausau, Hmong at another crossroads"
''
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,'' 16 June 2003. Retrieved on March 2, 2014.
Doualy Xaykaothao of ''
The Atlantic ''The Atlantic'' is an American magazine and multi-platform publisher. It features articles in the fields of politics, foreign affairs, business and the economy, culture and the arts, technology, and science. It was founded in 1857 in Boston, ...
'' stated that ethnic tension between Hmong and native-born Americans in the state started in the 1980s and spilled over into the following decade. In 1990 there were 16,980 Hmong in Wisconsin. This was an increase of more than 4,000% from the 1980 figure. By this time the US government had relaxed some restrictions and allowed families to immigrate, leading to reunification of Hmong families in Wisconsin and other destinations. The first effort aided nuclear families, but Hmong extended families and
clans A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...
are extremely important to their society, and they pressed also for extended family members to be allowed to immigrate.Mary Jo Beghto, "Hmong Refugees and the US Health System"
''Cultural Survival Quarterly'', Issue: 12.1 (Spring 1988) Health and Healing, accessed 30 August 2014
They have a
patrilineal Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritanc ...
kinship In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox says that ...
system. By 1980, the Hmong quickly began to organize Mutual Assistance Associations in cities where they had the largest populations, and these have continued. In 1991 there were 1,010 Hmong students in the
Wausau School District The Wausau School District is a public school district serving the Wausau metropolitan area, including the City of Wausau and the Towns of Rib Mountain, Wausau, Stettin, and Texas. It contains two high schools, two middle schools, 13 elementar ...
. In a period ending in 1994, the tax rate of the Wausau School District rose by 10.48% because of the added expenses of services to children from immigrant families. The increase was three times as high as the increase in an adjacent school district that lacked a large immigrant population. By 1994 Wausau had 4,200 refugees. The number of Hmong students in the school district was over 2,000 in 1996. In 1998 this number reached its peak, 2,214. Wausau had some social upheaval from the Hmong arrival. Some schools in Wausau developed a minority of English speakers or were dominated by Hmong students. Some native-born American families in Wausau criticized crime associated with the Hmong community and the costs of social services to them. In 2000 there were 46,600 Hmong in Wisconsin. In 2006 there were 38,949 Hmong. By 2002, 12% of the Wausau population was Hmong, and 25% of the students at Wausau public schools were Hmong.


State task force to aid 2004 immigration

In 2004 the U.S. agreed to allow immigration by an additional 15,000 Hmong in order to close the last refugee camp in Thailand. By 2006 a total of 3,254 of these individuals, representing 682 families, had been settled in Wisconsin. The governor of Wisconsin
Jim Doyle James Edward Doyle, Jr., (born November 23, 1945) is an American attorney and politician who served as the 44th governor of Wisconsin, serving from January 6, 2003 to January 3, 2011. In his first election to the governorship, he defeated incu ...
appointed a Hmong Resettlement Task Force in 2004 to review social policies and make recommendations to aid the acculturation of Hmong in the state, particularly as some welfare and social service programs were changing as a result of federal law. The state had gained experience with dealing with Hmong immigrants since the 1980s immigration, and many studies supported changes to programs to increase effectiveness. The task force reported in 2005 to the governor with recommendations to support the 2004 immigration.Arlene K. Welcher. ''A Review of the Recommendations of the Hmong Resettlement Task Force and the Implementation of These Recommendations''. Master's Thesis, March 2009, University of Wisconsin-Stout Menominee, pp. 3-7.
/ref> As a result of these recommendations, additional monies were budgeted for expansion of English as a Second Language (ESL) classes, and vocational skills training at community colleges, as well as for special classes to aid immigrants in adapting to Wisconsin. Local resettlement organizations worked to coordinate with the many Hmong Mutual Assistance Associations. Provisions were made for bilingual, bicultural aids and interpretation services to assist immigrants, and particularly the elderly, in using health and social services and managing interviews and encounters. Materials to gain a driver's license were translated into Hmong and posted on the department's website, and special programs were devised to help immigrants gain driver's licenses, to increase their readiness for work. In addition, employers were recruited for short-term programs to enhance immigrant entry into the job market.Welcher (2009), ''A Review of Task Force Recommendations'', pp. 15-19.
/ref> Among measures to recognize Hmong contributions, in 2006, the
Sheboygan Hmong Memorial The Sheboygan Hmong Memorial (or Lao, Hmong and American Veterans Memorial) is a monument to the service and sacrifice of the Hmong people of Laos who fought for the United States during the Secret War from 1961 to 1975, part of the Laotian C ...
was built in Sheboygan. It memorializes the Hmong veterans and civilians who fought with the United States in the
Laotian Civil War The Laotian Civil War (1959–1975) was a civil war in Laos which was waged between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government from 23 May 1959 to 2 December 1975. It is associated with the Cambodian Civil War and the Vietnam War ...
. As of the 2010 U.S. Census, there were 49,240 Hmong in the state. This was a 46% increase over the 2000 figures.Pabst, Georgia.
Report shows growth in Hmong community"
''
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel The ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'' is a daily morning broadsheet printed in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where it is the primary newspaper. It is also the largest newspaper in the state of Wisconsin, where it is widely distributed. It is currently o ...
''. January 6, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2014.


Geography

The majority of Wisconsin Hmong live in central city boundaries of Wisconsin communities, but some rural areas and small towns also have Hmong residents. Due to the post-
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by #Names, other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vie ...
resettlement policies of the
federal government of the United States The federal government of the United States (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the national government of the United States, a federal republic located primarily in North America, composed of 50 states, a city within a fede ...
, the Hmong population was primarily concentrated in medium-sized and large-sized towns.Hachten, Harva and Terese Allen. ''The Flavor of Wisconsin: An Informal History of Food and Eating in the Badger State''.
Wisconsin Historical Society The Wisconsin Historical Society (officially the State Historical Society of Wisconsin) is simultaneously a state agency and a private membership organization whose purpose is to maintain, promote and spread knowledge relating to the history of N ...
, September 3, 2013. , 9780870205538. p
133
In 2013
Mark Pfeifer Mark Edward Pfeifer is the editor of the '' Hmong Studies Journal'', and the director of the Hmong Resource Center Library and the Museum at the Hmong Cultural Center in St. Paul, Minnesota. From 2000 to 2006, he directed the Hmong Resource Center ...
, the editor of the ''
Hmong Studies Journal The ''Hmong Studies Journal'' is an irregularly published, peer-reviewed academic journal covering studies on the Hmong people. The journal was established in 1996 and the editor in chief and publisher is Mark Pfeifer.Greater Milwaukee The Milwaukee metropolitan area (also known as Metro Milwaukee or Greater Milwaukee) is a major metropolitan area located in Southeastern Wisconsin, consisting of the city of Milwaukee and the surrounding area. There are several definitions of the ...
, Appleton, Eau Claire, Green Bay,
La Crosse La Crosse is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of La Crosse County, Wisconsin, La Crosse County. Positioned alongside the Mississippi River, La Crosse is the largest city on Wisconsin's western border. La Crosse's populat ...
,
Madison Madison may refer to: People * Madison (name), a given name and a surname * James Madison (1751–1836), fourth president of the United States Place names * Madison, Wisconsin, the state capital of Wisconsin and the largest city known by this ...
, Sheboygan, and Wausau. As of 2008, the numerically largest Hmong population is in
Milwaukee County Milwaukee County is located in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. At the 2020 census, the population was 939,489, down from 947,735 in 2010. It is both the most populous and most densely populated county in Wisconsin, and the 45th most populous coun ...
. In order, the following numerically largest groups are in the counties of
La Crosse La Crosse is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of La Crosse County, Wisconsin, La Crosse County. Positioned alongside the Mississippi River, La Crosse is the largest city on Wisconsin's western border. La Crosse's populat ...
,
Marathon The marathon is a long-distance foot race with a distance of , usually run as a road race, but the distance can be covered on trail routes. The marathon can be completed by running or with a run/walk strategy. There are also wheelchair div ...
(Wausau),
Brown Brown is a color. It can be considered a composite color, but it is mainly a darker shade of orange. In the CMYK color model used in printing or painting, brown is usually made by combining the colors orange and black. In the RGB color model used ...
(Green Bay), and Eau Claire. The Hmong make up higher percentages of the population in Eau Claire, La Crosse, and Marathon counties than in the larger Milwaukee county. Jenna Christian, Pa Sia Low Moua, and Ingolf Vogeler, authors of ''The Cultural Landscape of the Hmong in Eau Claire, Wisconsin,'' wrote that "the Hmong stand out more singularly as an ethnic minority" in the other counties, which are less densely populated, "than they do in metropolitan areas like Milwaukee, which is already more racially and culturally diverse."Christian, Moua, and Vogeler, p. 3 (internal document page number) In 1998 Zaniewski and Rosen stated that the cities with the largest Hmong groups "are dispersed widely throughout the state". The communities that they identified as having significant Hmong populations included Appleton, Chippewa Falls, Eau Claire, Fond du Lac, Green Bay, La Crosse,
Ladysmith Ladysmith may refer to: * Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa * Ladysmith, British Columbia, Canada * Ladysmith, Wisconsin, United States * Ladysmith, New South Wales, Australia * Ladysmith, Virginia, United States * Ladysmith Island, Queenslan ...
, Madison, Manitowoc, Mauston, Menasha, Menomonie,
Milwaukee Milwaukee ( ), officially the City of Milwaukee, is both the most populous and most densely populated city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of Milwaukee County. With a population of 577,222 at the 2020 census, Milwaukee is ...
,
Neenah Neenah () is a city in Winnebago County, Wisconsin, Winnebago County, Wisconsin, in the East North Central States, north central United States. It is situated on the banks of Lake Winnebago, Little Lake Butte des Morts, and the Fox River (Wiscon ...
, Oshkosh, Sheboygan,
Stevens Point Stevens Point is the county seat of Portage County, Wisconsin, United States. The city was incorporated in 1858. Its 2020 population of 25,666 makes it the largest city in the county. Stevens Point forms the core of the United States Census Bur ...
, Superior, Tomah, Two Rivers, Wausau, and
Wisconsin Rapids Wisconsin Rapids is a city in and the county seat of Wood County, Wisconsin. The population was 18,877 at the 2020 census. The city also forms one of the core areas of the United States Census Bureau's Marshfield-Wisconsin Rapids Micropolit ...
.


Demographics

As of the 1990 U.S. Census, 74% of Hmong households have an income below the federal poverty level. The average annual household income of the Hmong community was $13,518.Zaniewski and Rosen, p
1415
As of 1998, the Hmong had the lowest socioeconomic status of all of the ethnic groups in Wisconsin. As of the 1990 Census, 3% of Wisconsin Hmong are 65 years of age or older, and 55% of Hmong are younger than 15 years of age.Zaniewski and Rosen, p
15
In December 1999 the Institute for Wisconsin's Future stated in a report, "Given the major cultural differences, language barriers and skill gaps facing the Hmong, a number of Wisconsin's Hmong population have relied on welfare to meet their families' basic needs during this transition."Kaiser, Robert L. "After 25 Years In U.S., Hmong Still Feel Isolated." ''
Chicago Tribune The ''Chicago Tribune'' is a daily newspaper based in Chicago, Illinois, United States, owned by Tribune Publishing. Founded in 1847, and formerly self-styled as the "World's Greatest Newspaper" (a slogan for which WGN radio and television ar ...
''. December 27, 1999
1
Retrieved on April 14, 2012.
Vicky Selkowe, who served as the organization's project coordinator and the co-writer of the report, said that the language barrier was the main difficulty affecting the state's Hmong population. The immigrant generation's inexperience with the written language worsened their disadvantage in learning a new language.


Commerce

As of the 1990 U.S. Census, 28% of Hmong are employed in professions or services related to professions. The Wisconsin statewide average in that sector was 23%. As of 2013 many Hmong families have market gardens and attend
farmers markets A farmers' market (or farmers market according to the AP stylebook, also farmer's market in the Cambridge Dictionary) is a physical retail marketplace intended to sell foods directly by farmers to consumers. Farmers' markets may be indoors or ...
in Eau Claire, Green Bay, Sheboygan,
La Crosse La Crosse is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of La Crosse County, Wisconsin, La Crosse County. Positioned alongside the Mississippi River, La Crosse is the largest city on Wisconsin's western border. La Crosse's populat ...
,
Madison Madison may refer to: People * Madison (name), a given name and a surname * James Madison (1751–1836), fourth president of the United States Place names * Madison, Wisconsin, the state capital of Wisconsin and the largest city known by this ...
,
Milwaukee Milwaukee ( ), officially the City of Milwaukee, is both the most populous and most densely populated city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of Milwaukee County. With a population of 577,222 at the 2020 census, Milwaukee is ...
, and Wausau. In the state relatively few Hmong work full-time in the agricultural sector. As of 2003, 90-95% of adult Hmong in Wausau worked in low paying jobs which did not require fluency in English. All eligible members of the family held jobs in a typical Hmong household. In the city of Wausau, as of 2003, some Hmong owned small businesses, restaurants, and grocery stores. As of 2019, The Hmong median household income in Wisconsin of $49,200 is closer to the state's median household income of $50,800.


Media

, in Wausau, there was relatively little Hmong-language media. Historically, the
Hmong language Hmong / Mong (; RPA: ''Hmoob,'' ; Nyiakeng Puachue: ; Pahawh: , ) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand ...
was not written for a significant part of its history. In the Twin Cities of Minnesota, the radio station
KFXN KFXN-FM (100.3 MHz) is a commercial radio station licensed to Minneapolis, Minnesota, broadcasting a sports talk format. The station is owned by iHeartMedia, and serves the Twin Cities market. KFXN-FM's transmitter is located in the suburb ...
(690 AM) carries a Hmong language format, along with television station KJNK-LD3. In Sheboygan, the city's school district station, WSHS, has carried a locally-based Hmong program since 1983 from Vue Yang and the Hmong Mutual Assistance Association. In 1994
Roy Beck Roy Howard Beck is an American author, as well as the founder and president of the anti-immigration advocacy organization NumbersUSA. He is former Washington, DC bureau chief of Booth Newspapers and an environment-beat newspaper reporter, formerly ...
wrote an article about Wausau's Hmong community for ''
The Atlantic ''The Atlantic'' is an American magazine and multi-platform publisher. It features articles in the fields of politics, foreign affairs, business and the economy, culture and the arts, technology, and science. It was founded in 1857 in Boston, ...
'', stating that it would grow to the point where native-born Americans would be displaced. Beck credited the article for a book publishing deal and other benefits, and these benefits resulted in him establishing
Numbers USA NumbersUSA is an anti-immigrationExplaining 'Chain Migration'
. In 2014 Robert Mentzer of the ''
Wausau Daily Herald The ''Wausau Daily Herald'' is a daily morning broadsheet printed in Wausau, Wisconsin. It is the primary newspaper in Wausau and is distributed throughout Marathon and Lincoln counties. The ''Daily Herald'' is owned by the Gannett Company, which ...
'' wrote a follow-up article on Beck's, criticizing it for having "racial anxiety" and stating that Beck's predictions did not come to fruition.


Education

A Hmong-centered charter school is located in Milwaukee. Chris Her-Xiong established the
Hmong American Peace Academy The Hmong American Peace Academy (HAPA) is a charter school in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, under the authority of Milwaukee Public Schools.International Peace Academy The International Peace Institute (IPI, formerly the International Peace Academy) is an independent non-profit lobby group based in New York (beside the headquarters of the United Nations, with which IPI works closely). The institute has regional ...
in 2004 as a K-12 school system there. In 1981 there were 160 Hmong students in the
Wausau School District The Wausau School District is a public school district serving the Wausau metropolitan area, including the City of Wausau and the Towns of Rib Mountain, Wausau, Stettin, and Texas. It contains two high schools, two middle schools, 13 elementar ...
(WSD). In the 1990s the Wausau School District received an increase of Hmong students, some of whom came from refugee camps and lacked formal education. In 1993 the Wausau School District began moving students, previously assigned to schools based on attendance zone, to a different scheme intended to equalize the ethnic proportions of Hmong and non-Hmong students. However it reverted to its previous scheme in 1994 after a negative reception from area parents. Patti Kraus, who worked as a secretary for the WSD, stated in 2016 that the ethnic Hmong successfully adapted to American school life. As of the 1990 Census, of the Hmong older than 25, 47% had an education below the fifth-grade level.


References

* Burt, Susan Meredith. "Hmong in Wisconsin" (Chapter 8). In: Purnell, Thomas, Eric Raimy, and Joseph Salmons (editors). ''Wisconsin Talk: Linguistic Diversity in the Badger State''.
University of Wisconsin Press The University of Wisconsin Press (sometimes abbreviated as UW Press) is a non-profit university press publishing peer-reviewed books and journals. It publishes work by scholars from the global academic community; works of fiction, memoir and po ...
, September 17, 2013. Start page 111. , 9780299293338. * Christian, Jenna, Pa Sia Low Moua, and Ingolf Vogeler (
University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire A university () is an educational institution, institution of higher education, higher (or Tertiary education, tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. Universities ty ...
).
The Cultural Landscape of the Hmong in Eau Claire, Wisconsin

Archive
. '' Wisconsin Geographer'', Volume 23 (2008-2009), pp. 3–19. * Zaniewski, Kazimierz J. and Carol J. Rosen. ''The Atlas of Ethnic Diversity in Wisconsin''.
University of Wisconsin Press The University of Wisconsin Press (sometimes abbreviated as UW Press) is a non-profit university press publishing peer-reviewed books and journals. It publishes work by scholars from the global academic community; works of fiction, memoir and po ...
, 1998. , 9780299160708.


Notes


Further reading

* Anderson, Jane Elizabeth. ''Maternal Diet and Infant Feeding Practices of Hmong Refugees in Wisconsin''.
University of Wisconsin--Madison A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, the ...
, 1992. Available in snippet view at
Google Books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical c ...
. * Koltyk, Jo Ann. ''New Pioneers in the Heartland: Hmong Life in Wisconsin''. Allyn & Bacon, Incorporated, 1998. , 9780205274123. *Garcia, J. A., & Harris, R. D. (2001). "Barriers to employment for welfare recipients: the role of race/ethnicity", ''Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 10(4),21-41.
Levy, S. G. (2004). "2004 Wisconsin Lao-Hmong resettlement summary"Archive
,
Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development The Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development (DWD) is an agency of the Wisconsin state government responsible for providing services to Wisconsin workers, employers, and job-seekers to meet Wisconsin's workforce needs. To effect its mission, ...
* Vang, Teng. ''English for Hmong Students in Wisconsin: Practical, Everyday Expressions'' (Issue 321 of Bulletin (Wisconsin. Dept. of Public Instruction)).
Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction The Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, headquartered in Madison, is the state education and public library management agency in the state of Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is t ...
, 1980. Available in snippet view at
Google Books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical c ...
. * ''Hmong Resettlement Task Force.'' Report to
Governor A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
Jim Doyle James Edward Doyle, Jr., (born November 23, 1945) is an American attorney and politician who served as the 44th governor of Wisconsin, serving from January 6, 2003 to January 3, 2011. In his first election to the governorship, he defeated incu ...
,
Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development The Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development (DWD) is an agency of the Wisconsin state government responsible for providing services to Wisconsin workers, employers, and job-seekers to meet Wisconsin's workforce needs. To effect its mission, ...
. 2005. *
Wisconsin Hmong Population and Hmong Mutual Assistance Associations
"
Archive
U.S. Department of Agriculture The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the federal executive department responsible for developing and executing federal laws related to farming, forestry, rural economic development, and food. It aims to meet the needs of com ...
(USDA)
Natural Resources Conservation Service Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) that provides technical assistance to farmers and other private landowners an ...
(NRCS). November 2007.
Hmong Mutual Assistance Association (HMAA) DirectoryArchive
- Posted at the website of the
Wisconsin Department of Children and Families The Wisconsin Department of Children and Families (DCF) is an agency of the Wisconsin state government responsible for providing services to assist children and families and to oversee county offices handling those services. This includes child ...
* - Page 2/30 states that the report focuses on Hmong as that ethnic group was the largest at the time of publication


External links


Hmong American Friendship Association Inc.
(Milwaukee)
Hmong Wisconsin Chamber of Commerce
(HWCC) (Milwaukee)
Eau Claire Area Hmong Mutual Assistance Association, Inc.

La Crosse Area Hmong Mutual Assistance Association, Inc.

Hmong Mutual Assistance Association of Sheboygan, Inc.

Wausau Area Hmong Mutual Association

Hmong Community Center, Inc.
(Manitowoc)
Wisconsin United Coalition of Mutual Assistance Associations, Inc
(WUCMAA) (Manitowoc)
Hmong Community Liaison
- City of Eau Claire * {{Hmong Americans by location
Hmong Hmong may refer to: * Hmong people, an ethnic group living mainly in Southwest China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand * Hmong cuisine * Hmong customs and culture ** Hmong music ** Hmong textile art * Hmong language, a continuum of closely related to ...
Hmong-American culture and history Asian-American culture in Wisconsin