History of Christianity in Romania
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The history of Christianity in Romania began within the
Roman province The Roman provinces (Latin: ''provincia'', pl. ''provinciae'') were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was rule ...
of
Lower Moesia Moesia (; Latin: ''Moesia''; el, Μοισία, Moisía) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River, which included most of the territory of modern eastern Serbia, Kosovo, north-eastern Alb ...
, where many
Christians Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
were martyred at the end of the 3rd century. Evidence of Christian communities has been found in the territory of modern
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
at over a hundred archaeological sites from the 3rd and 4th centuries. However, sources from the 7th and 10th centuries are so scarce that
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
seems to have diminished during this period. The vast majority of
Romanians The Romanians ( ro, români, ; dated exonym ''Vlachs'') are a Romance languages, Romance-speaking ethnic group. Sharing a common Culture of Romania, Romanian culture and Cultural heritage, ancestry, and speaking the Romanian language, they l ...
are adherent to the
Eastern Orthodox Church The Eastern Orthodox Church, also called the Orthodox Church, is the second-largest Christian church, with approximately 220 million baptized members. It operates as a communion of autocephalous churches, each governed by its bishops via ...
, while most other populations that speak
Romance languages The Romance languages, sometimes referred to as Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages, are the various modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages in the Indo-European language fam ...
follow the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
. The basic Christian terminology in
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
is of
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
origin, though the Romanians, referred to as
Vlachs "Vlach" ( or ), also "Wallachian" (and many other variants), is a historical term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate mainly Romanians but also Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Istro-Romanians and other Easter ...
in medieval sources, borrowed numerous South Slavic terms due to the adoption of the
liturgy Liturgy is the customary public ritual of worship performed by a religious group. ''Liturgy'' can also be used to refer specifically to public worship by Christians. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy represents a communal response to and partic ...
officiated in
Old Church Slavonic Old Church Slavonic or Old Slavonic () was the first Slavic languages, Slavic literary language. Historians credit the 9th-century Byzantine Empire, Byzantine missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius with Standard language, standardizing the lan ...
. The earliest Romanian translations of religious texts appeared in the 15th century, and the first complete translation of the Bible was published in 1688. The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river
Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
is a papal bull of 1234. In the territories east and south of the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretches ...
, two
metropolitan see Metropolitan may refer to: * Metropolitan area, a region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories * Metropolitan borough, a form of local government district in England * Metropolitan county, a t ...
s subordinate to the
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople The ecumenical patriarch ( el, Οἰκουμενικός Πατριάρχης, translit=Oikoumenikós Patriárchēs) is the archbishop of Constantinople (Istanbul), New Rome and '' primus inter pares'' (first among equals) among the heads of th ...
were set up after the foundation of two principalities,
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and so ...
and
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
in the 14th century. The growth of
monasticism Monasticism (from Ancient Greek , , from , , 'alone'), also referred to as monachism, or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role ...
in Moldavia provided a historical link between the 14th-century
Hesychast Hesychasm (; Greek: Ησυχασμός) is a contemplative monastic tradition in the Eastern Orthodox Church in which stillness (''hēsychia'') is sought through uninterrupted Jesus prayer. While rooted in early Christian monasticism, it took it ...
revival and the modern development of the monastic tradition in
Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. The vast majority of the region is covered by Russ ...
. Orthodoxy was for centuries only tolerated in the regions west of the Carpathians where
Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
diocese In Ecclesiastical polity, church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop. History In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided Roman province, pro ...
s were established within the
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen ...
in the 11th century. In these territories, transformed into the Principality of Transylvania in the 16th century, four "received religions" – Catholicism,
Calvinism Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Cal ...
,
Lutheranism Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
, and
Unitarianism Unitarianism (from Latin ''unitas'' "unity, oneness", from ''unus'' "one") is a nontrinitarian branch of Christian theology. Most other branches of Christianity and the major Churches accept the doctrine of the Trinity which states that there i ...
– were granted a privileged status. After the principality was annexed by the
Habsburg Empire The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...
, a part of the local Orthodox clergy declared the union with Rome in 1698. The
autocephaly Autocephaly (; from el, αὐτοκεφαλία, meaning "property of being self-headed") is the status of a hierarchical Christian church whose head bishop does not report to any higher-ranking bishop. The term is primarily used in Eastern O ...
of the
Romanian Orthodox Church The Romanian Orthodox Church (ROC; ro, Biserica Ortodoxă Română, ), or Patriarchate of Romania, is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox Christian denomination, Christian churches, and one of ...
was canonically recognized in 1885, years after the union of Wallachia and Moldavia into Romania. The Orthodox Church and the Romanian Church United with Rome were declared
national church A national church is a Christian church associated with a specific ethnic group or nation state. The idea was notably discussed during the 19th century, during the emergence of modern nationalism. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in a draft discussing ...
es in 1923. The Communist authorities abolished the latter, and the former was subordinated to the government in 1948. The
Uniate Church The Eastern Catholic Churches or Oriental Catholic Churches, also called the Eastern-Rite Catholic Churches, Eastern Rite Catholicism, or simply the Eastern Churches, are 23 Eastern Christian autonomous ('' sui iuris'') particular churches of t ...
was reestablished when the Communist regime collapsed in 1989. Now the
Constitution of Romania The current Constitution of Romania is the seventh permanent constitution in modern Romania's history. It is the fundamental governing document of Romania that establishes the structure of its government, the rights and obligations of citizens, ...
emphasizes churches' autonomy from the state.


Pre-Christian religions

The religion of the
Getae The Getae ( ) or Gets ( ; grc, Γέται, singular ) were a Thracian-related tribe that once inhabited the regions to either side of the Lower Danube, in what is today northern Bulgaria and southern Romania. Both the singular form ''Get'' an ...
, an
Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutch ...
people inhabiting the
Lower Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
region in antiquity, was characterized by a belief in the
immortality Immortality is the concept of eternal life. Some modern species may possess biological immortality. Some scientists, futurists, and philosophers have theorized about the immortality of the human body, with some suggesting that human immorta ...
of the
soul In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being". Etymology The Modern English noun ''soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest attes ...
.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 20. Another major feature of this religion was the cult of
Zalmoxis Zalmoxis ( grc-gre, Ζάλμοξις) also known as Salmoxis (Σάλμοξις), Zalmoxes (Ζάλμοξες), Zamolxis (Ζάμολξις), Samolxis (Σάμολξις), Zamolxes (Ζάμολξες), or Zamolxe (Ζάμολξε) is a divinity of the ...
; followers of Zalmoxis communicated with him by
human sacrifice Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein ...
. Modern
Dobruja Dobruja or Dobrudja (; bg, Добруджа, Dobrudzha or ''Dobrudža''; ro, Dobrogea, or ; tr, Dobruca) is a historical region in the Balkans that has been divided since the 19th century between the territories of Bulgaria and Romania. I ...
– the territory between the river
Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
and the
Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
– was annexed to the
Roman province The Roman provinces (Latin: ''provincia'', pl. ''provinciae'') were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was rule ...
of
Moesia Moesia (; Latin: ''Moesia''; el, Μοισία, Moisía) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River, which included most of the territory of modern eastern Serbia, Kosovo, north-eastern Alban ...
in 46 AD. Cults of
Greek gods The following is a list of gods, goddesses, and many other divine and semi-divine figures from ancient Greek mythology and ancient Greek religion. Immortals The Greeks created images of their deities for many purposes. A temple would house the ...
remained prevalent in this area, even after the conquest. Modern Banat,
Oltenia Oltenia (, also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions, with the alternative Latin names ''Wallachia Minor'', ''Wallachia Alutana'', ''Wallachia Caesarea'' between 1718 and 1739) is a historical province and geographical region of Romania ...
, and Transylvania were transformed into the Roman province of "
Dacia Traiana Roman Dacia ( ; also known as Dacia Traiana, ; or Dacia Felix, 'Fertile/Happy Dacia') was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 271–275 AD. Its territory consisted of what are now the regions of Oltenia, Transylvania and Banat (today ...
" in 106. Due to massive colonization, cults originating in the empire's other provinces entered Dacia.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 85. Around 73% of all epigraphic monuments at this time were dedicated to
Graeco-Roman The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were di ...
gods. The province of "Dacia Traiana" was dissolved in the 270s. Modern Dobruja became a separate province under the name of
Scythia Minor Scythia Minor or Lesser Scythia (Greek: , ) was a Roman province in late antiquity, corresponding to the lands between the Danube and the Black Sea, today's Dobruja divided between Romania and Bulgaria. It was detached from Moesia Inferior by t ...
in 297.Păcurariu 2007, p. 187


Origin of the Romanians' Christianity

The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river
Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
is a papal bull of 1234. In the territories east and south of the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretches ...
, two
metropolitan see Metropolitan may refer to: * Metropolitan area, a region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories * Metropolitan borough, a form of local government district in England * Metropolitan county, a t ...
s subordinate to the
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople The ecumenical patriarch ( el, Οἰκουμενικός Πατριάρχης, translit=Oikoumenikós Patriárchēs) is the archbishop of Constantinople (Istanbul), New Rome and '' primus inter pares'' (first among equals) among the heads of th ...
were set up after the foundation of two principalities,
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and so ...
and
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
in the 14th century. The growth of
monasticism Monasticism (from Ancient Greek , , from , , 'alone'), also referred to as monachism, or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role ...
in Moldavia provided a historical link between the 14th-century
Hesychast Hesychasm (; Greek: Ησυχασμός) is a contemplative monastic tradition in the Eastern Orthodox Church in which stillness (''hēsychia'') is sought through uninterrupted Jesus prayer. While rooted in early Christian monasticism, it took it ...
revival and the modern development of the monastic tradition in
Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. The vast majority of the region is covered by Russ ...
. Orthodoxy was for centuries only tolerated in the regions west of the Carpathians where
Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
diocese In Ecclesiastical polity, church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop. History In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided Roman province, pro ...
s were established within the
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen ...
in the 11th century. In these territories, transformed into the Principality of Transylvania in the 16th century, four "received religions" –
Calvinism Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Cal ...
, Catholicism,
Lutheranism Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
, and
Unitarianism Unitarianism (from Latin ''unitas'' "unity, oneness", from ''unus'' "one") is a nontrinitarian branch of Christian theology. Most other branches of Christianity and the major Churches accept the doctrine of the Trinity which states that there i ...
– were granted a privileged status. After the principality was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, a part of the local Orthodox clergy declared the union with Rome in 1698. The core religious vocabulary of the Romanian language originated from Latin.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 45. Christian words that have been preserved from Latin include ''a boteza'' (" to baptize"), ''Paște'' ("Easter"), ''preot'' ("priest"), and ''cruce'' ("cross").Georgescu 1991, p. 11.Spinei 2009, p. 269. Some words, such as ''biserică'' ("church", from ''
basilica In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building gave its name ...
'') and ''Dumnezeu'' ("God", from ''Domine Deus''), are independent of their
synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are all ...
s in other Romance languages. The exclusive presence in Romanian language of Latin vocabulary for concepts of
Christian faith Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global populat ...
may indicate the antiquity of Daco-Roman Christianity;H. Mihăescu (1979): La langue latine dans le sud-est de l'Europe, București, p. 227, nr. 206Constantin C. Petolescu (2010): "Dacia – Un mileniu de istorie", Ed. Academiei Române, p. 358; some examples are: The same is true for the Christian denominations of the main Christian holidays: ''Crăciun'' ("
Christmas Christmas is an annual festival commemorating Nativity of Jesus, the birth of Jesus, Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people Observance of Christmas by country, around t ...
") (from la, calatio(ne) or rather from la, lacreatio(ne), links=no) and ''Paște'' ("
Easter Easter,Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the '' Book of Common Prayer''; "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher''The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, Volume 4'') and Samuel Pepys''The Diary of Samuel ...
") (from la, Paschae, links=no); Several archaic or popular saint names, sometimes found as elements in place names, also seem to derive from Latin: , and . Today, ''sfânt'', of Slavic origin, is the usual way to refer to saint. The Romanian language also adopted many Slavic religious terms. For example, words like ''duh'' ("soul, spirit"), ''iad'' ("
hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location in the afterlife in which evil souls are subjected to punitive suffering, most often through torture, as eternal punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell ...
"), ''rai'' ("
paradise In religion, paradise is a place of exceptional happiness and delight. Paradisiacal notions are often laden with pastoral imagery, and may be cosmogonical or eschatological or both, often compared to the miseries of human civilization: in paradis ...
"), ''grijanie'' ("Holy Communion"), ''popă'' ("priest"), ''slujbă'' ("church service") and ''taină'' ("mystery,
sacrament A sacrament is a Christianity, Christian Rite (Christianity), rite that is recognized as being particularly important and significant. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites. Many Christians consider the sacraments ...
") are of South Slavic origin. Even some terms of
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and Latin origin, such as ''călugar'' ("monk") and ''Rusalii'' ("
Whitsuntide Whitsun (also Whitsunday or Whit Sunday) is the name used in Britain, and other countries among Anglicans and Methodists, for the Christian High Holy Day of Pentecost. It is the seventh Sunday after Easter, which commemorates the descent of the H ...
"), entered Romanian through Slavic. Several terms relating to church hierarchy, such as ''episcop'' ("bishop"), ''arhiepiscop'' ("archbishop"), ''ierarh'' ("hierarch"), ''mitropolit'' ("archbishop"), came from Medieval or Byzantine Greek, sometimes partly through a South Slavic intermediate A smaller number of religious terms were borrowed from Hungarian, for instance ''mântuire'' (
salvation Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its c ...
) and ''pildă'' (
parable A parable is a succinct, didactic story, in prose or verse, that illustrates one or more instructive lessons or principles. It differs from a fable in that fables employ animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature as characters, w ...
). Several theories exist regarding the origin of Christianity in Romania.Boia 2001, p. 11. Those who think that the Romanians descended from the inhabitants of "Dacia Traiana" suggest that the spread of Christianity coincided with the formation of the Romanian nation. Their ancestors' Romanization and Christianization, a direct result of the contact between the native Dacians and the Roman colonists, lasted for several centuries.Păcurariu 2007, p. 189. According to historian Ioan-Aurel Pop, Romanians were the first to adopt Christianity among the peoples who now inhabit the territories bordering Romania. They adopted Slavonic liturgy when it was introduced in the neighboring
First Bulgarian Empire The First Bulgarian Empire ( cu, блъгарьско цѣсарьствиѥ, blagarysko tsesarystviye; bg, Първо българско царство) was a medieval Bulgar- Slavic and later Bulgarian state that existed in Southeastern Europ ...
and
Kievan Rus' Kievan Rusʹ, also known as Kyivan Rusʹ ( orv, , Rusĭ, or , , ; Old Norse: ''Garðaríki''), was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas of ...
in the 9th and 10th centuries. According to a concurring scholarly theory, the Romanians' ancestors turned to Christianity in the provinces to the south of the Danube (in present-day Bulgaria and Serbia) after it was legalized throughout the Roman Empire in 313. They adopted the Slavonic liturgy during the First Bulgarian Empire before their migration to the territory of modern Romania began in the 11th or 12th century.


Roman times

Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
communities in Romania date at least from the 3rd century.Madgearu 2004, p. 41Zugravu 1995–1996, p. 165 According to an oral history first recorded by
Hippolytus of Rome Hippolytus of Rome (, ; c. 170 – c. 235 AD) was one of the most important second-third century Christian theologians, whose provenance, identity and corpus remain elusive to scholars and historians. Suggested communities include Rome, Palestin ...
in the early 3rd century, Jesus Christ's teachings were first propagated in "Scythia" by Saint Andrew. If "Scythia" refers to Scythia Minor, and not to the
Crimea Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
as has been claimed by the
Russian Orthodox Church , native_name_lang = ru , image = Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg , imagewidth = , alt = , caption = Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, Russia , abbreviation = ROC , type ...
, Christianity in Romania can be considered of apostolic origin. The existence of Christian communities in Dacia Traiana is disputed. Some Christian objects found there are dated from the 3rd century, preceding the Roman withdrawal from the region.Pop ''et al.'' 2005, pp. 186–187. Vessels with the sign of the cross, fish, grape stalks, and other Christian symbols were discovered in Ulpia Traiana,
Porolissum Porolissum was an ancient Roman city in Dacia. Established as a military camp in 106 during Trajan's Dacian Wars, the city quickly grew through trade with the native Dacians and became the capital of the province Dacia Porolissensis in 124. The si ...
,
Potaissa Turda (; hu, Torda, ; german: link=no, Thorenburg; la, Potaissa) is a city in Cluj County, Transylvania, Romania. It is located in the southeastern part of the county, from the county seat, Cluj-Napoca, to which it is connected by the Europ ...
, Apulum,
Romula Romula or Malva was an ancient city in Roman Dacia, later the village of Reşca, Dobrosloveni Commune, Olt County, Romania. It was the capital of Dacia Malvensis, one of the three subdivisions of the province of Dacia. History The Roman ...
, and
Gherla Gherla (; hu, Szamosújvár; german: Neuschloss) is a municipality in Cluj County, Romania (in the historical region of Transylvania). It is located from Cluj-Napoca on the river Someșul Mic, and has a population of 20,203. Three villages are a ...
, among other settlements. A gem representing the
Good Shepherd The Good Shepherd ( el, ποιμὴν ὁ καλός, ''poimḗn ho kalós'') is an image used in the pericope of , in which Jesus Christ is depicted as the Good Shepherd who lays down his life for his sheep. Similar imagery is used in Psalm 23 ...
was found at Potaissa. On a funerary altar in Napoca the sign of the cross was carved inside the letter "O" of the original pagan inscription of the monument, and pagan monuments that were later Christianized were also found at
Ampelum Zlatna (german: Klein-Schlatten, Kleinschlatten, Goldenmarkt; hu, Zalatna; la, Ampellum) is a town in Alba County, central Transylvania, Romania. It has a population of 7,490. Administration The town administers eighteen villages: Botești ('' ...
and Potaissa.Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 188. A turquoise and gold ring with the inscription "" ("I am Jupiter's scourge against the dissolute Christians") was also found and may be related to the Christian persecutions during the 3rd century. In Scythia Minor, a large number of Christians were
martyred A martyr (, ''mártys'', "witness", or , ''marturia'', stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an externa ...
during the
Diocletianic Persecution The Diocletianic or Great Persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. In 303, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding Christians' legal rights ...
at the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries. Four martyrs' relics were discovered in a crypt at Niculițel, with their names written in Greek on the crypt's inner wall. Thirty-five
basilica In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building gave its name ...
s built between the 4th and 6th centuries have been discovered in the main towns of the province.Păcurariu 2007, p. 188. The earliest basilica, built north of the Lower Danube, was erected at
Sucidava Sucidava (Sykibid, Skedevà after Procopius,Olga Karagiorgou Σucidava after Vasile Pârvan, where Σ is pronounced "sh"Pârvan - știri din Dacia Malvensis http://www.cimec.ro/Arheologie/ParvanArticole/ParvanStiriNouaDinDaciaMalvensis.pdf)) i ...
(now Celei), in one of the
Roman forts In the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, the Latin word ''castrum'', plural ''castra'', was a military-related term. In Latin usage, the singular form ''castrum'' meant 'fort', while the plural form ''castra'' meant 'camp'. The singular and ...
rebuilt under
Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovat ...
(527–565).Niculescu 2007, p. 152. Burial chambers were built in
Callatis Mangalia (, tr, Mankalya), ancient Callatis ( el, Κάλλατις/Καλλατίς; other historical names: Pangalia, Panglicara, Tomisovara), is a city and a port on the coast of the Black Sea in the south-east of Constanța County, Northern D ...
(now
Mangalia Mangalia (, tr, Mankalya), ancient Callatis ( el, Κάλλατις/Καλλατίς; other historical names: Pangalia, Panglicara, Tomisovara), is a city and a port on the coast of the Black Sea in the south-east of Constanța County, Northern D ...
), Capidava, and other towns of Scythia Minor during the 6th century. The walls were painted with quotes from
Psalms The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived ...
. Clerics from Scythia Minor were involved in the theological controversies debated at the first four Ecumenical Councils. Saint Bretanion defended the Orthodox faith against
Arianism Arianism ( grc-x-koine, Ἀρειανισμός, ) is a Christological doctrine first attributed to Arius (), a Christian presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt. Arian theology holds that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, who was begotten by God ...
in the 360s. The metropolitans of the province who supervised fourteen bishops by the end of the 5th century had their See in Tomis (modernly
Constanța Constanța (, ; ; rup, Custantsa; bg, Кюстенджа, Kyustendzha, or bg, Констанца, Konstantsa, label=none; el, Κωνστάντζα, Kōnstántza, or el, Κωνστάντια, Kōnstántia, label=none; tr, Köstence), histo ...
). The last metropolitan was mentioned in the 6th century, before Scythia Minor fell to the Avars and
Sclavenes The ' (in Latin) or ' (various forms in Greek, see below) were early Slavic tribes that raided, invaded and settled the Balkans in the Early Middle Ages and eventually became the progenitors of modern South Slavs. They were mentioned by early Byz ...
who destroyed the forts on the Lower Danube.Stephenson 2000, p. 64.
John Cassian John Cassian, also known as John the Ascetic and John Cassian the Roman ( la, Ioannes Eremita Cassianus, ''Ioannus Cassianus'', or ''Ioannes Massiliensis''; – ), was a Christian monk and theologian celebrated in both the Western and Eastern c ...
(360–435),
Dionysius Exiguus Dionysius Exiguus (Latin for "Dionysius the Humble", Greek: Διονύσιος; – ) was a 6th-century Eastern Roman monk born in Scythia Minor. He was a member of a community of Scythian monks concentrated in Tomis (present day Constanța, ...
(470–574) and Joannes Maxentius (leader of the so-called Scythian Monks) lived in Scythia Minor and contributed to its Christianization.


Early Middle Ages


East Roman Empire period

Most Christian objects from the 4th to 6th centuries found in the former province of Dacia Traiana were imported from the Roman Empire.Pop ''et al.'' 2005, pp. 187–188. The idea that public
edifice A building, or edifice, is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory (although there's also portable buildings). Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and funct ...
s were transformed into Christian cult sites at Slăveni and
Porolissum Porolissum was an ancient Roman city in Dacia. Established as a military camp in 106 during Trajan's Dacian Wars, the city quickly grew through trade with the native Dacians and became the capital of the province Dacia Porolissensis in 124. The si ...
has not been unanimously accepted by archaeologists. One of the first Christian objects found in Transylvania was a pierced bronze inscription discovered at
Biertan Biertan (german: Birthälm; hu, Berethalom) is a commune in Transylvania, Romania, in the north of the Sibiu County, 80 km north of Sibiu and 29 km east of Mediaș. Biertan is one of the most important Saxon villages with fortified ch ...
. A few 4th century graves in the Sântana de Mureș–Chernyakhov
necropolis A necropolis (plural necropolises, necropoles, necropoleis, necropoli) is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek ''nekropolis'', literally meaning "city of the dead". The term usually im ...
es was arranged in a Christian orientation. Clay lamps bearing depictions of crosses from the 5th and 6th centuries were also found here. Dacia Traiana was dominated by "
Taifali The Taifals or Tayfals ( la, Taifali, Taifalae or ''Theifali''; french: Taïfales) were a people group of Germanic or Sarmatian origin, first documented north of the lower Danube in the mid third century AD. They experienced an unsettled and fra ...
, Victuali, and
Tervingi The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised Tervings or Thervings) were a Gothic people of the plains north of the Lower Danube and west of the Dniester River in the 3rd and the 4th centuries. They had close contacts with the Gr ...
" around 350. Christian teachings among the Tervingi who formed the Western
Goths The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe ...
started in the 3rd century.Todd 1992, p. 142. For instance, the ancestors of
Ulfilas Ulfilas (–383), also spelled Ulphilas and Orphila, all Latinized forms of the unattested Gothic form *𐍅𐌿𐌻𐍆𐌹𐌻𐌰 Wulfila, literally "Little Wolf", was a Goth of Cappadocian Greek descent who served as a bishop and missionary ...
, who was consecrated "bishop of the Christians in the Getic land" in 341, had been captured in
Capadocia Cappadocia or Capadocia (; tr, Kapadokya), is a historical region in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It largely is in the provinces Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray, Kırşehir, Sivas and Niğde. According to Herodotus, in the time of the Ionian Revo ...
(
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
) around 250. During the first Gothic persecution of Christians in 348, Ulfilas was expelled to Moesia, where he continued to preach Greek, Latin, and
Gothic Gothic or Gothics may refer to: People and languages *Goths or Gothic people, the ethnonym of a group of East Germanic tribes **Gothic language, an extinct East Germanic language spoken by the Goths **Crimean Gothic, the Gothic language spoken b ...
languages. During the second persecution between 369 and 372, many believers were martyred, including
Sabbas the Goth Sabbas the Goth ( ro, Sava Gotul, gr, Σάββας ο Γότθος; died 12 April 372) is a Christian martyr and saint. Life and persecution Sabbas (also Saba) was born in 334 in a village in the Buzău river valley and lived in what is now ...
. The remains of twenty-six Gothic martyrs were transferred to the Roman Empire after the invasion of the Huns in 376. Following the collapse of the
Hunnic Empire The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...
in 454, the
Gepids The Gepids, ( la, Gepidae, Gipedae, grc, Γήπαιδες) were an East Germanic tribe who lived in the area of modern Romania, Hungary and Serbia, roughly between the Tisza, Sava and Carpathian Mountains. They were said to share the religion a ...
"ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia". A gold ring from a 5th-century grave at
Apahida Apahida ( hu, Apahida; german: Bruckendorf; la, Pons Abbatis) is a commune in Cluj County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of eight villages: Apahida, Bodrog (''Bodrog''), Câmpenești, Corpadea (''Kolozskorpád''), Dezmir (''Dezmér''), Pat ...
is ornamented with crosses. Another ring from the grave bears the inscription "", probably in reference to Omharus, one of the known Gepid kings. The Gepidic kingdom was annihilated in 567–568 by the Avars. The presence of Christians among the "barbarians" has been well documented.Curta 2005, p. 188.
Theophylact Simocatta Theophylact Simocatta (Byzantine Greek: Θεοφύλακτος Σιμοκάτ(τ)ης ''Theophýlaktos Simokát(t)ēs''; la, Theophylactus Simocatta) was an early seventh-century Byzantine Empire, Byzantine historiographer, arguably ranking as th ...
wrote of a Gepid who "had once long before been of the Christian religion". The author of the '' Strategikon'' documented Romans among the ''Sclavenes'', and some of those Romans may have been Christians as well. The presence and proselytism of these Christians does not go so far as to explain how artifacts with Christian symbolism appeared on sites to the south and east of the Carpathians in the 560s. Such artifacts have been found at Botoșana and Dulceanca. Casting molds for pectoral crosses were found in the space around Eastern and Southern Carpathian mountains, starting with the 6th century.


Outer-Carpathian regions and the Balkans

Burial assemblages found in 8th-century cemeteries to the south and east of the Carpathians, for instance at
Castelu Castelu is a Commune in Romania, commune in Constanța County, Northern Dobruja, Romania. The commune includes two villages: * Castelu (historical name: ''Chiostel'', tr, Köstel) * Nisipari (historical name: ''Caratai'', tr, Karatay, german: K ...
, prove that local communities practiced
cremation Cremation is a method of Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a Cadaver, dead body through Combustion, burning. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India ...
Spinei 2009, p. 270. The idea that local Christians incorporating pre-Christian practices can also be assumed among those who cremated their dead is a matter of debate among historians. Cremation was replaced by inhumation by the beginning of the 11th century. For the period from the 9th to 11th centuries, in the regions from the East of Carpathians there are known more than 52 discoveries of Christian origin (moulds, brackets, pendants, groundsels, pottery with Christian signs, rings with Christian signs), many of them locally made; some of these discoveries and the content and the orientation of graves show that local people practised the Christian burial ceremony before the Christianization of Bulgars and Slavs. The territories between the Lower Danube and the Carpathians were incorporated into the
First Bulgarian Empire The First Bulgarian Empire ( cu, блъгарьско цѣсарьствиѥ, blagarysko tsesarystviye; bg, Първо българско царство) was a medieval Bulgar- Slavic and later Bulgarian state that existed in Southeastern Europ ...
by the first half of the 9th century.
Boris I Boris I, also known as Boris-Mihail (Michael) and ''Bogoris'' ( cu, Борисъ А҃ / Борисъ-Михаилъ bg, Борис I / Борис-Михаил; died 2 May 907), was the ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire in 852–889. At ...
(852–889) was the first Bulgarian ruler to accept Christianity, in 863. By that time differences between the Eastern and the Western branches of Christianity had grown significantly.Sedlar 1994, p. 159. Boris I allowed the members of the
Eastern Orthodox clergy Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai *Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air Li ...
to enter his country in 864, and the
Bulgarian Orthodox Church The Bulgarian Orthodox Church ( bg, Българска православна църква, translit=Balgarska pravoslavna tsarkva), legally the Patriarchate of Bulgaria ( bg, Българска патриаршия, links=no, translit=Balgarsk ...
adopted the Bulgarian alphabet in 893. An inscription in Mircea Vodă from 943 is the earliest example of the use of
Cyrillic script The Cyrillic script ( ), Slavonic script or the Slavic script, is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic languages, Slavic, Turkic languages, Turkic, Mongolic languages, ...
in Romania. The First Bulgarian Empire was conquered by the Byzantines under
Basil II Basil II Porphyrogenitus ( gr, Βασίλειος Πορφυρογέννητος ;) and, most often, the Purple-born ( gr, ὁ πορφυρογέννητος, translit=ho porphyrogennetos).. 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed the Bulgar S ...
(976–1025). He soon revived the Metropolitan See of Scythia Minor at
Constanța Constanța (, ; ; rup, Custantsa; bg, Кюстенджа, Kyustendzha, or bg, Констанца, Konstantsa, label=none; el, Κωνστάντζα, Kōnstántza, or el, Κωνστάντια, Kōnstántia, label=none; tr, Köstence), histo ...
, but this put Christian Bulgarians under the jurisdiction of the
archbishop of Ohrid The Archbishop of Ohrid is a historic title given to the primate of the Archbishopric of Ohrid. The whole original title of the primate was Archbishop of Justiniana Prima and all Bulgaria ( gr, ἀρχιεπίσκοπὴ τῆς Πρώτης Ἰου ...
. The Metropolitan See of Moesia was reestablished in '' Dristra'' (now Silistra, Bulgaria) in the 1040s when a mission of mass evangelization was dispatched among the
Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა ...
who had settled in the Byzantine Empire.Stephenson 2000, p. 97. The Metropolitan See of ''Dristra'' was taken over by the bishop of '' Vicina'' in the 1260s. The Vlachs living in
Boeotia Boeotia ( ), sometimes Latinized as Boiotia or Beotia ( el, Βοιωτία; modern: ; ancient: ), formerly known as Cadmeis, is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, and its lar ...
,
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
were described as false Christians by
Benjamin of Tudela Benjamin of Tudela ( he, בִּנְיָמִין מִטּוּדֶלָה, ; ar, بنيامين التطيلي ''Binyamin al-Tutayli'';‎ Tudela, Kingdom of Navarre, 1130 Castile, 1173) was a medieval Jewish traveler who visited Europe, Asia, an ...
in 1165. However, the Vlach brothers
Peter Peter may refer to: People * List of people named Peter, a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Peter (given name) ** Saint Peter (died 60s), apostle of Jesus, leader of the early Christian Church * Peter (surname), a sur ...
and Asen built a church in order to gather
Bulgarian Bulgarian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Bulgaria * Bulgarians, a South Slavic ethnic group * Bulgarian language, a Slavic language * Bulgarian alphabet * A citizen of Bulgaria, see Demographics of Bulgaria * Bul ...
and Vlach prophets to announce that St
Demetrius of Thessaloniki Saint Demetrius (or Demetrios) of Thessalonica ( el, Ἅγιος Δημήτριος τῆς Θεσσαλονίκης, (); bg, Димитър Солунски (); mk, Свети Димитрија Солунски (); ro, Sfântul Dumitru; sr ...
had abandoned their enemies, while arranging their rebellion against the Byzantine Empire. The Bulgarians and the Vlachs revolted and created the
Second Bulgarian Empire The Second Bulgarian Empire (; ) was a medieval Bulgarians, Bulgarian state that existed between 1185 and 1396. A successor to the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Tsars Kaloyan of Bulgaria, Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II ...
.Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 170. The head of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church was elevated to the rank of "Primate of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs" in 1204. Catholic missionaries among the
Cumans The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian language, Russian Exonym and endonym, exonym ), were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confede ...
, who had controlled the territories north of the Lower Danube and east of the Carpathians from the 1070s, were first conducted by the
Teutonic Knights The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem, commonly known as the Teutonic Order, is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. It was formed to aid Christians on ...
, and later by the Dominicans, after 1225. A new Catholic diocese was set up in the region in 1228 by Archbishop Robert of Esztergom, the papal legate for "Cumania and the Brodnik lands". A letter written by
Pope Gregory IX Pope Gregory IX ( la, Gregorius IX; born Ugolino di Conti; c. 1145 or before 1170 – 22 August 1241) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 19 March 1227 until his death in 1241. He is known for issuing the '' Decre ...
revealed that many of the inhabitants of this diocese were Orthodox Romanians, who also converted Hungarian and Saxon colonists to their faith.Spinei 2009, p. 155.


Intra-Carpathian regions

Christian objects disappeared in Transylvania after the 7th century.Madgearu 2005, p. 141. Most local cemeteries had cremation graves by this point, but
inhumation Burial, also known as interment or inhumation, is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objec ...
graves with west–east orientation from the late 9th or early 10th century were found at
Ciumbrud Aiud (; la, Brucla, hu, Nagyenyed, Hungarian pronunciation: ; german: Straßburg am Mieresch) is a city located in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania. The city's population is 22,876. It has the status of municipality and is the 2nd-largest c ...
and
Orăștie Orăștie (; german: link=no, Broos, hu, Szászváros, la, Saxopolis) is a city in Hunedoara County, south-western Transylvania, central Romania. History 7th–9th century – On the site of an old swamp was a human settlement, now ...
. The territory was invaded by the Hungarians around 896.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 59. The second-in-command of the Hungarian tribal federation, known as the gyula, converted to Christianity in
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
around 952.Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 147.Stephenson 2000, p. 40. The gyula was accompanied back to Hungary by the Greek Hierotheos, who was the bishop of Tourkia (Hungary) appointed by the Ecumenical Patriarch.
Pectoral cross A pectoral cross or pectorale (from the Latin ''pectoralis'', "of the chest") is a cross that is worn on the chest, usually suspended from the neck by a cord or chain. In ancient and medieval times pectoral crosses were worn by both clergy and ...
es of Byzantine origin from this period have been found at the confluence of the Mureș and
Tisa The Tisza, Tysa or Tisa, is one of the major rivers of Central and Eastern Europe. Once, it was called "the most Hungarian river" because it flowed entirely within the Kingdom of Hungary. Today, it crosses several national borders. The Tisza be ...
Rivers. A bronze cross from
Alba Iulia Alba Iulia (; german: Karlsburg or ''Carlsburg'', formerly ''Weißenburg''; hu, Gyulafehérvár; la, Apulum) is a city that serves as the seat of Alba County in the west-central part of Romania. Located on the Mureș River in the historical ...
, and a Byzantine pectoral cross from
Dăbâca Dăbâca ( hu, Doboka; german: Dobeschdorf) is a commune in Cluj County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Dăbâca, Luna de Jos (''Kendilóna''), and Pâglișa (''Poklostelke''). Geography The commune lies on the banks of ...
from the 10th century have been found in Transylvania. Additionally, a Greek monastery was founded at
Cenad Cenad ( hu, Nagycsanád, during the Dark Ages ''Marosvár''; german: Tschanad; sr, Чанад, Čanad; la, Chanadinum) is a commune in Timiș County, Romania. It is composed of a single village, Cenad. The village serves as a customs point on t ...
by a chieftain named
Achtum Ajtony, Ahtum or Achtum ( hu, Ajtony, bg, Охтум, ro, Ahtum, sr, Ахтум) was an early-11th-century ruler in the territory now known as Banat in present Romania and Serbia. His primary source is the ''Long Life of Saint Gerard'', a 14t ...
who was baptized according to the
Greek rite The Byzantine Rite, also known as the Greek Rite or the Rite of Constantinople, identifies the wide range of cultural, liturgical, and canonical practices that developed in the Eastern Christian Church of Constantinople. The canonical hours are ...
around 1002. Gyula's territory was incorporated with Achtum's territory into the
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen ...
under Stephen I, who was baptized according to the Latin rite. Stephen I introduced the
tithe A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash or cheques or more r ...
, a church tax assessed on agricultural products.
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Alba Iulia :''There is also a Romanian Orthodox Archbishop of Alba Iulia and a Greek Catholic Archdiocese of Făgăraş and Alba Iulia.'' The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Alba Iulia ( hu, Gyulafehérvári Római Katolikus Érsekség) is a Latin Church Ca ...
,
Roman Catholic Diocese of Szeged–Csanád The Roman Catholic Diocese of Szeged–Csanád ( la, Dioecesis Szegediensis–Csanadiensis) is a diocese located in the cities of Szeged and Csanád in the Ecclesiastical province of Kalocsa-Kecskemét in Hungary. The diocesan cathedral is the ...
, and
Roman Catholic Diocese of Oradea Mare The Diocese of Oradea ( la, Dioecesis Magnovaradinensis Latinorum, hu, Nagyváradi Római Katolikus Egyházmegye, ro, Dieceza Romano-Catolică de Oradea Mare) is a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical territory in Romania, named after its episcopal s ...
were the first three Roman Catholic dioceses in Romania and all became
suffragans A suffragan bishop is a type of bishop in some Christian denominations. In the Anglican Communion, a suffragan bishop is a bishop who is subordinate to a metropolitan bishop or diocesan bishop (bishop ordinary) and so is not normally jurisdiction ...
of the
archbishop of Kalocsa In Christian denominations, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In most cases, such as the Catholic Church, there are many archbishops who either have jurisdiction over an ecclesiastical province in addition to their own archdioc ...
in
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
. The provostship of
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , german: link=no, Hermannstadt , la, Cibinium, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'', hu, Nagyszeben ) is a city in Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Ci ...
was transferred, upon the local
Saxons The Saxons ( la, Saxones, german: Sachsen, ang, Seaxan, osx, Sahson, nds, Sassen, nl, Saksen) were a group of Germanic * * * * peoples whose name was given in the early Middle Ages to a large country (Old Saxony, la, Saxonia) near the Nor ...
's request, under the jurisdiction of the
archbishop of Esztergom In Christian denominations, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In most cases, such as the Catholic Church, there are many archbishops who either have jurisdiction over an ecclesiastical province in addition to their own archdioc ...
(Hungary) in 1212. Large cemeteries developed around churches after church officials insisted on churchyard burials. The first
Benedictine , image = Medalla San Benito.PNG , caption = Design on the obverse side of the Saint Benedict Medal , abbreviation = OSB , formation = , motto = (English: 'Pray and Work') , foun ...
monastery in Transylvania was founded at Cluj-Manăștur in the second half of the 11th century.Kristó 2003, p. 86. New monasteries were established during the next few centuries in Almașu, Herina,
Mănăstireni Mănăstireni ( hu, Magyargyerőmonostor; german: Ungarisch-Deutschklosterdorf) is a commune in Cluj County, Transylvania, Romania, located on the Căpuș River. It is composed of six villages: Ardeova (''Erdőfalva''), Bedeciu (''Bedecs''), Bica ...
, and Meseș.Curta 2006, p. 354. When the
Cistercian The Cistercians, () officially the Order of Cistercians ( la, (Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint ...
abbey at Cârța was founded in the early 13th century, its estates were created on land belonging to the Vlachs. The enmity between the Eastern and Western Churches also increased during the 11th century.


Middle Ages


Orthodox Church in the intra-Carpathian regions

Although the Council of Buda prohibited the
Eastern schism Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways * Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 * Eastern Air ...
from erecting churches in 1279, numerous Orthodox churches were built in the period starting in the late 13th century.Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 288. These churches were mainly made of wood, though some landowners erected stone churches on their estates. Most of these churches were built on the plan of a
Greek cross The Christian cross, with or without a figure of Christ included, is the main religious symbol of Christianity. A cross with a figure of Christ affixed to it is termed a ''crucifix'' and the figure is often referred to as the ''corpus'' (La ...
. Some churches also display elements of Romanesque or
Gothic architecture Gothic architecture (or pointed architecture) is an architectural style that was prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas. It e ...
. Many churches were painted with
votive portrait A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...
s illustrating the church founders. Local Orthodox hierarchies were often under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Sees of Wallachia and Moldavia by the late 14th century.Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 284. For instance, the Metropolitan of Wallachia also styled himself "
Exarch An exarch (; from Ancient Greek ἔξαρχος ''exarchos'', meaning “leader”) was the holder of any of various historical offices, some of them being political or military and others being ecclesiastical. In the late Roman Empire and ea ...
of all Hungary and the borderlands" in 1401. Orthodox monasteries in Romania, including
Șcheii Brașovului Șcheii Brașovului ( hu, Bolgárszeg, german: Belgerei or more recently ''Obere Vorstadt''; traditional Romanian name: ''Bulgărimea'', colloquially ''Șchei'') is the old ethnically Bulgarian and Romanian neighborhood of Brașov, a city in southe ...
, were centers of Slavonic writing. The Bible was first translated into Romanian by monks in
Maramureș Maramureș or Marmaroshchyna ( ro, Maramureș ; uk, Мармарощина, Marmaroshchyna; hu, Máramaros) is a geographical, historical and cultural region in northern Romania and western Ukraine. It is situated in the northeastern Carpath ...
during the 15th century. In 1356,
Pope Innocent VI Pope Innocent VI ( la, Innocentius VI; 1282 or 1295 – 12 September 1362), born Étienne Aubert, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 18 December 1352 to his death in September 1362. He was the fifth Avignon pope a ...
streghtened a previous bull addressed to the prior of the
Dominican Order The Order of Preachers ( la, Ordo Praedicatorum) abbreviated OP, also known as the Dominicans, is a Catholic mendicant order of Pontifical Right for men founded in Toulouse, France, by the Spanish priest, saint and mystic Dominic of Cal ...
of Hungary, where he was instructed to preach the crusade “against all the inhabitants of Transylvania,
Bosnia Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and He ...
and
Slavonia Slavonia (; hr, Slavonija) is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria, one of the four historical regions of Croatia. Taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with five Croatian counties: Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja ...
, which are heretics” (''contra omnes Transilvanos, Bosnenses et Sclavonie, qui heretici fuerint''). Treatment of Orthodox Christians worsened under
Louis I of Hungary Louis I, also Louis the Great ( hu, Nagy Lajos; hr, Ludovik Veliki; sk, Ľudovít Veľký) or Louis the Hungarian ( pl, Ludwik Węgierski; 5 March 132610 September 1382), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370 ...
, who ordered the arrest of Eastern Orthodox priests in Cuvin and Caraș in 1366. He also decreed that only those who "loyally follow the faith of the Roman Church may keep and own properties" in Hațeg,
Caransebeș Caransebeș (; german: Karansebesch; hu, Karánsebes, Hungarian pronunciation: ) is a municipiu, city in Caraș-Severin County, part of the Banat region in southwestern Romania. It is located at the confluence of the Timiș (river), River Timiș ...
, and
Mehadia Mehadia ( hu, Mehádia; german: Mehadia; tr, Mehadiye) is a small market town and commune in Caraș-Severin County, Banat, Romania. It lies on the European route E70, in the Cerna River valley. The town is located on the site of the ancient Ro ...
. However, conversion was infrequent in this period; the
Franciscan The Franciscans are a group of related Mendicant orders, mendicant Christianity, Christian Catholic religious order, religious orders within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Italian Catholic friar Francis of Assisi, these orders include t ...
Bartholomew of Alverna complained in 1379 that "some stupid and indifferent people" disapprove of the conversion of "the Slavs and Romanians". Both Romanians and Catholic landowners objected to this command.Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 287. Romanian chapels and stone churches built on the estates of Catholic noblemen and bishops were frequently mentioned in documents from the late 14th century. A special
inquisitor An inquisitor was an official (usually with judicial or investigative functions) in an inquisition – an organization or program intended to eliminate heresy and other things contrary to the doctrine or teachings of the Catholic faith. Literal ...
sent against the
Hussite The Hussites ( cs, Husité or ''Kališníci''; "Chalice People") were a Czech proto-Protestant Christian movement that followed the teachings of reformer Jan Hus, who became the best known representative of the Bohemian Reformation. The Hussit ...
s by the pope also took forcible measures against "schismatics" in 1436.Sedlar 1994, p. 189. Following the union of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches at the
Council of Florence The Council of Florence is the seventeenth ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church, held between 1431 and 1449. It was convoked as the Council of Basel by Pope Martin V shortly before his death in February 1431 and took place in ...
in 1439, the local Romanian Church was considered to be united with Rome.Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 240. Those who opposed the
Church union Church union is the name given to a merger of two or more Christian denominations. Such unions may take on many forms, including a united church and a federation. United churches {{main, United and uniting churches A united church is the resu ...
, such as John of Caffa, were imprisoned. Although the monarchs only insisted on the conversion of the Romanians living in the southern borderlands, many Romanian
noblemen Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The characterist ...
converted to Catholicism in the 15th century. Transylvanian authorities made systematic efforts to convert Romanians to Calvinism in the second half of the 16th century, and the expulsion of priests who did not convert to the "true faith" was ordered in 1566.Keul 1994, p. 105. Orthodox hierarchy was only restored under
Stephen Báthory Stephen Báthory ( hu, Báthory István; pl, Stefan Batory; ; 27 September 1533 – 12 December 1586) was Voivode of Transylvania (1571–1576), Prince of Transylvania (1576–1586), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1576–1586) ...
with the appointment of the Moldavian monk, Eftimie, as Orthodox bishop in 1571.Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 283.


Orthodox Church in Moldavia and Wallachia

An unknown
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
geographer wrongly described the "Romanians and the Vlachs" as
pagan Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Judaism. ...
s in the early 14th century. For instance,
Basarab I Basarab I (), also known as Basarab the Founder ( ro, Basarab Întemeietorul; c. 1270 – 1351/1352), was a ''voivode'' and later the first independent ruler of Wallachia who lived in the first half of the . Many details of his life are uncerta ...
(c. 1310–1352), the Romanian ruler who achieved the independence of
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and so ...
in the territories between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube, was mentioned as "schismatic" by a royal diploma of 1332, referring to the Orthodox Church. The Metropolitan See of Wallachia was established in 1359 when the Ecumenical Patriarch assigned Hyakinthos, the last metropolitan of Vicina, to lead the local Orthodox Church.Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, p. 262. Although a second Metropolitan See, with jurisdiction over
Oltenia Oltenia (, also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions, with the alternative Latin names ''Wallachia Minor'', ''Wallachia Alutana'', ''Wallachia Caesarea'' between 1718 and 1739) is a historical province and geographical region of Romania ...
, was set up in Severin (now
Drobeta-Turnu Severin Drobeta-Turnu Severin (), colloquially Severin, is a city in Mehedinți County, Oltenia, Romania, on the northern bank of the Danube, close to the Iron Gates. "Drobeta" is the name of the ancient Dacian and Roman towns at the site, and the modern ...
) in 1370, there was again only one Metropolitan in the principality after around 1403.Păcurariu 2007, p. 192. The local Church was reorganized under
Radu IV the Great Radu IV the Great ( ro, Radu cel Mare), (1467 – 23 April 1508) was a Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia from September 1495 to April 1508. He succeeded his father, Vlad Călugărul, who was one of the three brothers to Vlad III the Impaler ( ro, Vla ...
(1496–1508) by
Patriarch Nephon II of Constantinople Nephon II or Nifon II, ( el, ), (? – 11 August 1508), born ''Nicholas'', was Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople three times: from 1486 to 1488, from 1497 to 1498 and for a short time in 1502. He is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orth ...
, the former Ecumenical Patriarch who founded two suffragan bishoprics. A second principality,
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
, achieved its independence in the territories to the east of the Carpathians under Bogdan I (1359 – c. 1365), but it still remained under the jurisdiction of the Orthodox hierarch of
Halych Halych ( uk, Га́лич ; ro, Halici; pl, Halicz; russian: Га́лич, Galich; german: Halytsch, ''Halitsch'' or ''Galitsch''; yi, העליטש) is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. The city gave its name to the P ...
(
Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
). Although the metropolitan of Halych consecrated two bishops for Moldavia in 1386, the Ecumenical Patriarch objected to this.Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, p. 264. The patriarch established a separate metropolitan see for Moldavia in 1394, but his appointee was refused by Stephen I of Moldavia (1394–1399). The conflict was solved when the patriarch recognized a member of the princely family as metropolitan in 1401. In Moldavia, two suffragan bishoprics in
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
, and
Rădăuți Rădăuți (; german: Radautz; hu, Radóc; pl, Radowce; uk, Радівці, ''Radivtsi''; yi, ראַדעװיץ ''Radevits''; tr, Radoviçe) is a town in Suceava County, north-eastern Romania. It is situated in the historical region of Buko ...
were first recorded in 1408 and 1471.Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 237. From the second half of the 14th century, Romanian princes sponsored the monasteries of
Mount Athos Mount Athos (; el, Ἄθως, ) is a mountain in the distal part of the eponymous Athos peninsula and site of an important centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism in northeastern Greece. The mountain along with the respective part of the penins ...
(Greece).Păcurariu 2007, p. 195. First, the Koutloumousiou monastery received donations from
Nicholas Alexander of Wallachia Nicholas Alexander ( ro, Nicolae Alexandru), (died November 1364) was a Voivode of Wallachia (c. 1352 – November 1364), after having been co-ruler to his father Basarab I. Reign In the year 1359, he founded the Eastern Orthodox Metropoli ...
(1352–1364). In Wallachia, the monastery at Vodița was established in 1372 by the monk Nicodemus from
Serbia Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
, who had embraced monastic life at Chilandar on
Mount Athos Mount Athos (; el, Ἄθως, ) is a mountain in the distal part of the eponymous Athos peninsula and site of an important centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism in northeastern Greece. The mountain along with the respective part of the penins ...
. Monks fleeing from the
Ottomans The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922). Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
founded the earliest monastery in Moldavia at Neamț in 1407. From the 15th century the four Eastern patriarchs and several monastic institutions in the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
also received landed properties and other sources of income, such as
mills Mills is the plural form of mill, but may also refer to: As a name * Mills (surname), a common family name of English or Gaelic origin * Mills (given name) *Mills, a fictional British secret agent in a trilogy by writer Manning O'Brine Places Uni ...
, in the two principalities. Many monasteries, such as Cozia in Wallachia, and
Bistrița (; german: link=no, Bistritz, archaic , Transylvanian Saxon: , hu, Beszterce) is the capital city of Bistrița-Năsăud County, in northern Transylvania, Romania. It is situated on the Bistrița River. The city has a population of approxima ...
in Moldavia, became important centers of Slavonic literature. The earliest local chronicles, such as the "Chronicle of Putna", were also written by monks. Religious books in Old Church Slavonic were printed in Târgoviște under the auspices of the monk Macaria from
Montenegro ) , image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Podgorica , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , official_languages = M ...
after 1508. Wallachia in particular became a leading center of the Orthodox world, which was demonstrated by the consecration of the cathedral of Curtea de Argeș in 1517 in the presence of the Ecumenical Patriarch and the
Protos Protos means "first," derived from the ancient Greek . Protos may also refer to: * Protos (monastic office), a monastic office at the Eastern Orthodox monastic state of Mount Athos * Protos (constructor), a former racing car constructor * Protos ...
of Mount Athos. The painted monasteries of Moldavia are still an important symbol of cultural heritage today. The extensive lands owned by monasteries made the monasteries a significant political and economic force. Many of these monasteries also owned
Gypsy The Romani (also spelled Romany or Rromani , ), colloquially known as the Roma, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group, traditionally nomadic itinerants. They live in Europe and Anatolia, and have diaspora populations located worldwide, with sign ...
and
Tatar The Tatars ()Tatar
in the Collins English Dictionary
is an umbrella term for different
slaves Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
. Monastic institutions enjoyed fiscal privileges, including an exemption from taxes, although 16th-century monarchs occasionally tried to seize monastic assets. Wallachia and Moldavia maintained their autonomous status, though the princes were obliged to pay a yearly tax to the sultans starting during the 15th century.Păcurariu 2007, p. 191. Dobruja was annexed in 1417 by the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
, and the Ottomans also occupied parts of southern Moldavia in 1484, and Proilavia (now
Brăila Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila. According to the 2011 Romanian census there were 180,302 pe ...
) in 1540. These territories were under the jurisdiction of the metropolitans of Dristra and Proilavia for several centuries following the annexation.


Other denominations

The Diocese of Cumania was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241–1242.Dobre 2009, p. 28. After this, Catholic missions to the East were carried on by the Franciscans. For example,
Pope Nicholas IV Pope Nicholas IV ( la, Nicolaus IV; 30 September 1227 – 4 April 1292), born Girolamo Masci, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 February 1288 to his death on 4 April 1292. He was the first Franciscan to be ele ...
sent Franciscan missionaries to the "country of the Vlachs" in 1288. In the 14th and 15th centuries new Catholic dioceses were established in the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians, mainly due to the presence of Hungarian and Saxon colonists. Local Romanians also sent a complaint to the
Holy See The Holy See ( lat, Sancta Sedes, ; it, Santa Sede ), also called the See of Rome, Petrine See or Apostolic See, is the jurisdiction of the Pope in his role as the bishop of Rome. It includes the apostolic episcopal see of the Diocese of Rome ...
in 1374 demanding a Romanian-speaking bishop.
Alexander the Good Alexander the Good ( ro, Alexandru cel Bun or ''Alexandru I Mușat''; c. 1375 – 1 January 1432) was a Voivode (Lord) of Moldavia, reigning between 1400 and 1432, son of Roman I Mușat. He succeeded Iuga to the throne, and, as a ruler, init ...
of Moldavia (1400–1432) also founded an
Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
bishopric in Suceava in 1401.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 102. In Moldavia, however, many Catholic believers were forced to convert to Orthodoxy under Ștefan VI Rareș (1551–1552) and
Alexandru Lăpușneanu Alexandru IV Lăpușneanu (1499 – 5 May 1568) was Ruler of Moldavia between September 1552 and 18 November 1561 and then between October 1564 and 5 May 1568. His wife and consort was Doamna Ruxanda Lăpușneanu, the daughter of Peter IV Rare ...
(1552–1561).Pozsony 2002, p. 89. In the Kingdom of Hungary parish organization became fully developed in the 14th to 15th centuries. In the 1330s, according to a papal tithe-register, the average ratio of villages with Catholic parishes was around forty percent in the entire kingdom, but in the territory of modern Romania there was a Catholic church in 954 settlements out of 2100 and 2200 settlements.Kristó 2003, p. 135. The institutional and economic power of the Catholic Church in Transylvania was systematically dismantled by the authorities in the second half of the 16th century.Keul 1994, p. 60.Murdock 2000, p. 14. The extensive lands of the bishopric of Transylvania were confiscated in 1542. The Catholic Church soon became deprived of its own higher local hierarchy and subordinate to a state governed by Protestant monarchs and Estates. Some of the local noblemen, including a branch of the powerful Báthory family and many
Székelys The Székelys (, Székely runes: 𐳥𐳋𐳓𐳉𐳗), also referred to as Szeklers,; ro, secui; german: Szekler; la, Siculi; sr, Секељи, Sekelji; sk, Sikuli are a Hungarian subgroup living mostly in the Székely Land in Romania. ...
, remained Catholics.


Reformation

First the Hussite movement for religious reform began in Transylvania in the 1430s. Many of the Hussites moved to Moldavia, the only state in Europe outside
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; cs, Čechy ; ; hsb, Čěska; szl, Czechy) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohem ...
where they remained free of persecution. The earliest evidence that Lutheran teachings "were known and followed" in Transylvania is a royal letter written to the town council of Sibiu in 1524. The Transylvanian Saxons' assembly decreed the adoption of the Lutheran creed by all the Saxon towns in 1544. Municipal authorities also tried to influence the ritual of the Orthodox services. A Romanian
Catechism A catechism (; from grc, κατηχέω, "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult c ...
was published in 1543, and a Romanian translation of the four
Gospels Gospel originally meant the Christian message ("the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out. In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words an ...
in 1560. Calvinist preachers first became active in Oradea in the early 1550s. The Diet recognized the existence of two distinct Protestant churches in 1564 after the Saxon and Hungarian clergy had failed to agree on the contested points of theology, such as the nature of communion services.Murdock 2000, p. 15. The government also exerted pressure on the Romanians in order to change their faith. The Diet of 1566 decreed that a Romanian Calvinist bishop, Gheorghe of Sîngeorgiu, be their sole religious leader. A faction of Hungarian preachers raised doubts over the doctrine of the
Trinity The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the central dogma concerning the nature of God in most Christian churches, which defines one God existing in three coequal, coeternal, consubstantial divine persons: God the F ...
in the 1560s. In a decade
Cluj ; hu, kincses város) , official_name=Cluj-Napoca , native_name= , image_skyline= , subdivision_type1 = Counties of Romania, County , subdivision_name1 = Cluj County , subdivision_type2 = Subdivisions of Romania, Status , subdivision_name2 ...
became the center of the Unitarian movement. The four "received religions" was recognized in 1568 by the Diet of Turda which also gave
ministers Minister may refer to: * Minister (Christianity), a Christian cleric ** Minister (Catholic Church) * Minister (government), a member of government who heads a ministry (government department) ** Minister without portfolio, a member of governme ...
the right to teach according to their own understanding of Christianity. Although a ban on further religious innovation was enacted in 1572, many Székelys turned to
Sabbatarianism Sabbatarianism advocates the observation of the Sabbath in Christianity, in keeping with the Ten Commandments. The observance of Sunday as a day of worship and rest is a form of first-day Sabbatarianism, a view which was historically heralded ...
in the 1580s. The process of giving up pre-Reformation traditions was extremely slow in Transylvania.Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 253. Although all or some of the images were eliminated in the churches, sacred vessels were kept. Protestant denominations also kept the strict observance of
holidays A holiday is a day set aside by Norm (social), custom or by law on which normal activities, especially business or work including school, are suspended or reduced. Generally, holidays are intended to allow individuals to celebrate or commemorate ...
and
fasting Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
periods.


Early Modern and Modern Times


Orthodox Church in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Romania

The use of Romanian in church service was first introduced in Wallachia under
Matei Basarab Matei Basarab (; 1588, Brâncoveni, Olt – 9 April 1654, Bucharest) was a Wallachian Voivode (Prince) between 1632 and 1654. Reign Much of Matei's reign was spent fighting off incursions from Moldavia, which he successfully accomplished in 1637 ...
(1632–1654), and in Moldavia under
Vasile Lupu Lupu Coci, known as Vasile Lupu (; 1595–1661), was a Voivode of Moldavia of Albanian origin between 1634 and 1653. Lupu had secured the Moldavian throne in 1634 after a series of complicated intrigues and managed to hold it for twenty years. Va ...
(1634–1652).Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 200. During Vasile Lupu's reign a pan-Orthodox synod adopted the "Orthodox Confession of Faith" in
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the second largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical region of Moldavia, it has traditionally ...
in 1642 in order to reject any Calvinist influence over Orthodox hierarchy.Murdock 2000, p. 135. The first complete Romanian "Book of Prayer" was published in 1679 by Metropolitan
Dosoftei Dimitrie Barilă (), better known under his monastical name Dosoftei (; October 26, 1624—December 13, 1693), was a Moldavian Metropolitan, scholar, poet and translator. Born in Suceava, he attended the school of the "Trei Ierarhi" Monaste ...
of Moldavia (1670–1686).Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 386. A team of scholars also completed the Romanian translation of the Bible in 1688. The two principalities suffered the highest degree of Ottoman exploitation during the " Phanariot century" (1711–1821) when princes appointed by the sultans ruled in both of them. The second half of the 18th century, brought a spiritual renaissance, initiated by
Paisius Velichkovsky Saint Paisius Velichkovsky or Wieliczkowski (''Paisie de la Neamţ'' in Romanian; Паисий Величковский in Russian; Паїсій Величковський in Ukrainian; 20 December 1722 – 15 November 1794) was an Eastern Orthodo ...
. His influence led to a resurgence of Hesychastic prayer in the monasteries in Moldavia. In this period Romanian theological culture benefited from new translations from
patristic Patristics or patrology is the study of the early Christian writers who are designated Church Fathers. The names derive from the combined forms of Latin ''pater'' and Greek ''patḗr'' (father). The period is generally considered to run from ...
literature.Păcurariu 2007, p. 199. In the first decades of the 19th century theological seminaries were established in both principalities, such as in the
Socola Monastery Socola Monastery or ''Schimbarea la Față'' (" Transfiguration") was a Romanian Orthodox establishment located in the eponymous quarter of southern Iaşi, Romania. Founded during Moldavia's existence as a state, it was erected and dedicated by ...
in 1803, and in Bucharest in 1836. A new archbishopric subordinated to the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church was created in
Chișinău Chișinău ( , , ), also known as Kishinev (russian: Кишинёв, r=Kishinjóv ), is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the Republic of Moldova. The city is Moldova's main industrial and commercial center, and is located in the ...
when the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
annexed
Bessarabia Bessarabia (; Gagauz: ''Besarabiya''; Romanian: ''Basarabia''; Ukrainian: ''Бессара́бія'') is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Be ...
in 1812.Păcurariu 2007, p. 198. The Russian authorities soon forbade its archbishop from having any connections with the Orthodox Church in the Romanian principalities. Romanian society embarked upon a rapid development following the reinstallation of native princes in 1821. For instance, the Gypsy slaves owned by the monasteries were freed in Moldavia in 1844, and in Wallachia in 1847. The two principalities were united under
Alexandru Ioan Cuza Alexandru Ioan Cuza (, or Alexandru Ioan I, also anglicised as Alexander John Cuza; 20 March 1820 – 15 May 1873) was the first ''domnitor'' (Ruler) of the Romanian Principalities through his double election as prince of Moldavia on 5 Januar ...
(1859–1866), and the new state adopted the name of Romania in 1862. In his reign, the estates of the monasteries were nationalized.Păcurariu 2007, p. 200. He also endorsed the use of Romanian in the liturgy, and replaced the Cyrillic alphabet with the
Romanian alphabet The Romanian alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Romanian language. It is a modification of the classical Latin alphabet The Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used b ...
.Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 20. In 1860, the first Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded at the
University of Iași The Alexandru Ioan Cuza University (Romanian: ''Universitatea „Alexandru Ioan Cuza"''; acronym: UAIC) is a public university located in Iași, Romania. Founded by an 1860 decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, under whom the former Academia Mih ...
. The Orthodox churches of the former principalities, the
Metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia The Metropolis of Wallachia and Dobruja, headquartered in Bucharest, Romania, is a metropolis of the Romanian Orthodox Church. History The Metropolis of Ungro-Wallachia was created, in 1359, by Callistus I, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantin ...
and the
Metropolitan of Moldavia The Metropolis of Moldavia and Bucovina, in Iași, Romania, is a metropolis of the Romanian Orthodox Church. History The Metropolis of Moldavia was set up in 1386, and recognized in 1401, by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. It ...
, merged to form the
Romanian Orthodox Church The Romanian Orthodox Church (ROC; ro, Biserica Ortodoxă Română, ), or Patriarchate of Romania, is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox Christian denomination, Christian churches, and one of ...
. In 1864, the Romanian Orthodox Church was proclaimed independent, but the Ecumenical Patriarch pronounced the new ecclesiastic regime contrary to the holy canons.Kitromilides 2006, p. 239. Henceforth all ecclesiastic appointments and decisions were subject to state approval. The Metropolitan of Wallachia, who received the title of Primate Metropolitan in 1865, became the head of the General Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church. The 1866 Constitution of Romania recognized the Orthodox Church as the dominant religion in the kingdom. A law passed in 1872 declared the church to be "autocephalous". After a long period of negotiations with the
Patriarchate of Constantinople The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ( el, Οἰκουμενικὸν Πατριαρχεῖον Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, translit=Oikoumenikón Patriarkhíon Konstantinoupóleos, ; la, Patriarchatus Oecumenicus Constanti ...
, the latter finally recognized the Metropolis of Romania in 1885. Following the
Romanian War of Independence The Romanian War of Independence is the name used in Romanian historiography to refer to the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), following which Romania, fighting on the Russian side, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire. On , Romania and the R ...
, Dobruja was awarded to Romania in 1878.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. xxiii. At that time the majority of Dobruja's population was
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
, but a massive colonization effort soon began. The region had also been inhabited from the late 17th century by a group of Russian
Old Believer Old Believers or Old Ritualists, ''starovery'' or ''staroobryadtsy'' are Eastern Orthodox Christians who maintain the liturgical and ritual practices of the Russian Orthodox Church as they were before the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow be ...
s called
Lipovans , flag = Flag of the Lipovans.png , flag_caption = Flag of the Lipovans , image = Evstafiev-lipovane-slava-cherkeza.jpg , caption = Lipovans during a ceremony in front of the Lipovan church in the Romanian village of Slava Cercheză in 2004 ...
. The
Great Powers A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power in ...
recognized Romania's independence in 1880, after Romania's constitution was modified to allow the
naturalization Naturalization (or naturalisation) is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen of a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done automatically by a statute, i.e., without any effort on the part of the in ...
of non-Christians. In order to solemnize Romania's independence, in 1882 the Orthodox hierarchy performed the ceremony of blessing the holy oil, a privilege that had thereto been reserved for the ecumenical patriarchs. The new conflict with the patriarch delayed the canonical recognition of the autocephaly of the Romanian Orthodox Church for three years, until 1885.


Orthodox Church in Transylvania and the Habsburg Empire

The 16th-century Calvinist princes of Transylvania insisted on the Orthodox clergy's unconditional subordination to the Calvinist superintendents. For instance, when an Orthodox synod adopted measures for regulation of church life
Gabriel Bethlen Gabriel Bethlen ( hu, Bethlen Gábor; 15 November 1580 – 15 November 1629) was Prince of Transylvania from 1613 to 1629 and Duke of Opole from 1622 to 1625. He was also King-elect of Hungary from 1620 to 1621, but he never took control of th ...
(1613–1630) removed the local metropolitan. By forcing the use of Romanian instead of Old Church Slavonic in the liturgy, the authorities also contributed to the development of the Romanians' national consciousness. Local Orthodox believers remained without their own religious leader after the integration of Transylvania into the Habsburg Empire, when a synod led by the metropolitan declared the union with Rome in 1698.Păcurariu 2007, p. 197. The first movement for the reestablishment of the Orthodox Church was initiated in 1744 by Visarion Sarai, a Serbian monk. The monk
Sofronie Sofronie may refer to: Name * Sofronie of Cioara, Romanian Orthodox saint * Sofronie Drincec (born 1967), Romanian bishop * Sofronie Vârnav, Moldavian and Romanian political figure, philanthropist, collector, and Orthodox clergyman * Sofronie ...
organized Romanian peasants to demand a Serbian Orthodox bishop in 1759–1760.Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 441. In 1761 the government consented to the establishment of an Orthodox diocese in Sibiu under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Metropolitan of Sremski Karlovci. The Serbian Metropolitan was also granted authority, in 1781, over the diocese of Cernăuți (now
Chernivtsi Chernivtsi ( uk, Чернівці́}, ; ro, Cernăuți, ; see also other names) is a city in the historical region of Bukovina, which is now divided along the borders of Romania and Ukraine, including this city, which is situated on the upp ...
, Ukraine) in
Bukovina Bukovinagerman: Bukowina or ; hu, Bukovina; pl, Bukowina; ro, Bucovina; uk, Буковина, ; see also other languages. is a historical region, variously described as part of either Central or Eastern Europe (or both).Klaus Peter BergerT ...
that had been annexed from Moldavia by the Habsburg Empire.Magocsi 2002, p. 117. In 1848
Andrei Șaguna Andrei Șaguna (; 20 January 1808, Miskolc, Hungary – 28 June 1873, Nagyszeben, Hungary) was a Metropolitan bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Church in Transylvania, and one of the Romanian community political leaders in the Habsburg monarchy, ...
became the bishop of Sibiu and worked to free the local Orthodox Church from the control of the Serbian Metropolitan. He succeeded in 1864, when a separate Orthodox Church with its Metropolitan See in Sibiu was established with the consent of the government. In the second half of the 19th century, the local Romanian Orthodox Church supervised the activity of four high schools, and over 2,700 elementary schools. The Orthodox Church in Bukovina also became independent of the Serbian Metropolitan in 1873. A Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded in the University of Cernăuți in 1875. However, many Romanian priests were deported or imprisoned for propagating the union of the lands inhabited by Romanians after Romania declared war on Austria–Hungary in 1916.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 15.


Romanian Church united with Rome

After the Principality of Transylvania was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, the new Catholic rulers tried to attract the Romanians' support in order to strengthen their control over the principality governed by predominantly Protestant Estates. For the Romanians, the Church Union proposed by the imperial court nurtured the hope that the central government would assist them in their conflicts with local authorities. The union of the local Romanian Orthodox Church with Rome was declared in Alba Iulia, after years of negotiations, in 1698 by Metropolitan
Atanasie Anghel Atanasie Anghel Popa (died 19 August 1713) was a Romanian Greek-Catholic bishop of Alba Iulia between 1698 and 1713. He was the successor to Teophilus Seremi in the seat of Mitropoliei Bălgradului (Alba-Iulia). Through his continued efforts, he ...
and thirty-eight archpriests.Treptow, Popa 1996, p.101. This union was based on the four points adopted by the Council of Florence, including the recognition of
papal primacy Papal primacy, also known as the primacy of the bishop of Rome, is a Roman Catholic ecclesiological doctrine concerning the respect and authority that is due to the pope from other bishops and their episcopal sees. The doctrine is accepted a ...
. Atanasie Anghel lost his title of metropolitan and was re-ordained as a bishop subordinated to the archbishop of Esztergom in 1701. The Orthodox world considered the union with Rome as apostasy.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 189. Metropolitan Theodosie of Wallachia referred to Atanasie Anghel as "the new
Judas Judas Iscariot (; grc-x-biblical, Ἰούδας Ἰσκαριώτης; syc, ܝܗܘܕܐ ܣܟܪܝܘܛܐ; died AD) was a disciple and one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ. According to all four canonical gospels, Judas betraye ...
". Since many of the local Romanians opposed the Church union, it also created discord among them. Uniate Romanians assumed a leading role in the struggle for the Romanians' political emancipation in Transylvania for the next century. Bishop
Inocențiu Micu-Klein Ioan Inocențiu Micu-Klein, also known by his lay name Ioan Micu (1692 – 22 September 1768), was a Bishop of Făgăraș and Primate of the Romanian Greek Catholic Church from 1730 to his resignation in 1751. He played an instrumental role in t ...
demanded in dozens of memoranda their recognition as the fourth " political nation" in the province. The Uniate bishopric in Transylvania was raised to the rank of a Metropolitan See and became independent of the archbishop of Esztergom in 1855.


Other denominations

Calvinism was popular in Transylvania during the 17th century. Over sixty Unitarian ministers were expelled from their parishes in the Székely Land in the 1620s due to the influence of Calvinist Church leaders. Although Transylanian Diets also enacted anti-Sabbatarian decrees, Sabbatarian communities survived in some Székely villages, such as Bezid. The Saxon communities' religious life was characterized by both differentiation from Calvinism, and by an increased number of worship services. Traditional Lutheranism, due to its concern for individual spiritual needs, always remained more popular than
Crypto-Calvinism Crypto-Calvinism is a pejorative term describing a segment of those members of the Lutheran Church in Germany who were accused of secretly subscribing to Calvinist doctrine of the Eucharist in the decades immediately after the death of Martin Luth ...
. The assets of the local Catholic Church were administered by the "Catholic Estates", a
public body A statutory corporation is a government entity created as a statutory body by statute. Their precise nature varies by jurisdiction, thus, they are statutes owned by a government or controlled by national or sub-national government to the (in ...
consisting of both laymen and priests. A report on church visitations conducted around 1638 revealed that there were numerous Catholic villages without clergymen in the Székely Land. The Principality of Transylvania, following its integration into the Habsburg Empire, was administered according to the principles established by the ''Leopoldine Diploma'' of 1690, which confirmed the privileged status of the four "received religions". In practice the new regime gave preference to the Roman Catholic Church. Between 1711 and 1750, the apogee of the
Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
, the government ensured that Catholics would get preference in appointments to high offices. The preeminent status of the Roman Catholic Church was not weakened under Joseph II (1780–1790), despite his issuance of the ''1781 Edict of Tolerance''. Catholics who wished to convert to any of the other three "received religions" were still required to undergo an instruction. The equal status of the Churches was not declared until the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1868. In the Kingdom of Romania, a new Roman Catholic archbishopric was organized in 1883 with its See in Bucharest. Among the new Protestant movements, the first
Baptist Baptists form a major branch of Protestantism distinguished by baptizing professing Christian believers only (believer's baptism), and doing so by complete immersion. Baptist churches also generally subscribe to the doctrines of soul compete ...
congregation was formed in 1856, and the
Seventh-day Adventist The Seventh-day Adventist Church is an Adventism, Adventist Protestantism, Protestant Christian denomination which is distinguished by its observance of Saturday, the Names of the days of the week#Numbered days of the week, seventh day of the ...
s were first introduced in
Pitești Pitești () is a city in Romania, located on the river Argeș. The capital and largest city of Argeș County, it is an important commercial and industrial center, as well as the home of two universities. Pitești is situated in the historical re ...
in 1870.


Greater Romania

Following
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, ethnic Romanians in Banat, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania voted for the union with the Kingdom of Romania. The new borders were recognized by international treaties in 1919–1920. Thus, a Romania that had thereto been a relatively homogeneous state now included a mixed religious and ethnic population. According to the 1930 census, 72 percent of its citizens were Orthodox, 7.9 percent Greek Catholic, 6.8 percent Lutheran, 3.9 percent Roman Catholic, and 2 percent Reformed.Păcurariu 2007, p. 201. The constitution adopted in 1923 declared that "differences of religious beliefs and denominations" do not constitute "an impediment either to the acquisition of political rights or to the free exercise thereof". It also recognized two national churches by declaring the Romanian Orthodox Church as the dominant denomination and by according the Romanian Church united with Rome "priority over other denominations". The ''1928 Law of Cults'' granted a fully recognized status to seven more denominations, among them the Roman Catholic, the Armenian, the Reformed, the Lutheran, and the Unitarian Churches. All Orthodox hierarchs in the enlarged kingdom became members of the Holy Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church in 1919. New Orthodox bishoprics were set up, for instance, in Oradea, Cluj,
Hotin Khotyn ( uk, Хотин, ; ro, Hotin, ; see other names) is a city in Dnistrovskyi Raion, Chernivtsi Oblast of western Ukraine and is located south-west of Kamianets-Podilskyi. It hosts the administration of Khotyn urban hromada, one of the ...
(now Khotyn, Ukraine), and
Timișoara ), City of Roses ( ro, Orașul florilor), City of Parks ( ro, Orașul parcurilor) , image_map = Timisoara jud Timis.svg , map_caption = Location in Timiș County , pushpin_map = Romania#Europe , pushpin_ ...
. The head of the church was raised to the rank of patriarch in 1925. Orthodox ecclesiastical art flourished in this period due to the erection of new Orthodox churches especially in the towns of Transylvania.Păcurariu 2007, p. 202. The 1920s also witnessed the emergence of Orthodox
revival movement Christian revivalism is increased spiritual interest or renewal in the life of a church congregation or society, with a local, national or global effect. This should be distinguished from the use of the term "revival" to refer to an evangelis ...
s, among them the "Lord's Army" founded in 1923 by
Iosif Trifa Iosif Trifa (3 March 1888 – 12 February 1938) was a Romanian Orthodox priest and evangelist. He founded "Oastea Domnului" ("The Lord's Army"). He was also the uncle of Valerian Trifa. Trifa placed on the 100 greatest Romanians list. Life Iosif ...
. Conservative Orthodox groups who refused to use the
Gregorian calendar The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It was introduced in October 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years dif ...
adopted by the Romanian Orthodox Church in 1925 formed the separate
Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church The Old Calendar Orthodox Church of Romania ( ro, Biserica Ortodoxă de Stil Vechi din România) is an Old Calendarist denomination. As of February 2022, the current primate of the church is . External linksOfficial Website {{Romanian religion ...
. In this period, the preservation of
ethnic minorities The term 'minority group' has different usages depending on the context. According to its common usage, a minority group can simply be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e. a group in society with the least number o ...
' cultural heritage became a primary responsibility of the traditional Protestant denominations.Pope 1992, p. 160. The Reformed Church became closely identified with a large segment of the local Hungarian community, and the Lutheran Church perceived itself as the bearer of
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (german: Siebenbürger Sachsen; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen''; ro, Sași ardeleni, sași transilvăneni/transilvani; hu, Erdélyi szászok) are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania ...
culture. Among the new Protestant denominations, the
Pentecostal movement Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a Protestant Charismatic Christian movement
was declared illegal in 1923. The intense hostility between the Baptist and Orthodox communities also culminated in the temporary closing of all Baptist churches in 1938.


Communist regime

According to the armistice signed between Romania and the
Allied Powers in 1944, Romania lost Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the
Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
. Consequently, the Orthodox dioceses in these territories were subordinated to the patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church.Păcurariu 2007, p. 203. In Romania, the
Communist Party A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term ''communist party'' was popularized by the title of ''The Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A ...
used the same tactics as in other
Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. The vast majority of the region is covered by Russ ...
an countries.Georgescu 1991, p. 224. The Communist Party supported a coalition government, but in short time drove out all other parties from power. The ''1948 Law on Religious Denominations'' formally upheld freedom of religion, but ambiguous stipulations obliged both priests and believers to conform to the constitution,
national security National security, or national defence, is the security and defence of a sovereign state, including its citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of government. Originally conceived as protection against military atta ...
, public order, and accepted morality.Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 22. For example, priests who voiced
anti-communist Anti-communism is Political movement, political and Ideology, ideological opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in the Russian Empire, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, w ...
attitudes could be deprived of their state-sponsored salaries. The new law acknowledged fourteen denominations, among them the Old Rite Christian, Baptist, Adventist, and Pentecostal churches, but the Romanian Church united with Rome was abolished. Although the Orthodox church was completely subordinated to the state through the appointment of patriarchs sympathetic to the Communists, over 1,700 Orthodox priests of the 9,000 Orthodox priests in Romania were arrested between 1945 and 1964.Georgescu 1991, p. 236. The Orthodox theologian
Dumitru Stăniloae Dumitru Stăniloae (; – 4 October 1993) was a Romanian Orthodox Christian priest, theologian and professor. He worked for over 45 years on a comprehensive Romanian translation of the Greek Philokalia, a collection of writings on prayer by the ...
whose three-volume ''Dogmatic Theology'' presents a synthesis of patristic and contemporary themes was imprisoned between 1958 and 1964. The first Romanian saints were also canonized between 1950 and 1955.Boia 2001, p. 73. Among them, the 17th-century Sava Brancovici was canonized for his relations with Russia. Some other denominations met an even more tragic fate. For instance, four of the five arrested Uniate bishops died in prison. Religious
dissident A dissident is a person who actively challenges an established Political system, political or Organized religion, religious system, doctrine, belief, policy, or institution. In a religious context, the word has been used since the 18th century, and ...
movements became especially active between 1975 and 1983.Georgescu 1991, p. 264. For instance, the Orthodox priest
Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa (November 23, 1925 – November 21, 2006) was a Romanian priest and dissident. Beginning with his teens, Calciu-Dumitreasa was involved in the activity of the fascist Iron Guard (also known as the "Legionary Movement ...
spent sixteen years in prison for involvement with the
fascist Fascism is a far-right, Authoritarianism, authoritarian, ultranationalism, ultra-nationalist political Political ideology, ideology and Political movement, movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and pol ...
Iron Guard The Iron Guard ( ro, Garda de Fier) was a Romanian militant revolutionary fascist movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel Michael () or the Legionnaire Movement (). It was strongly ...
and was later condemned to ten more because of his sermons on the relationship of
atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d ...
, faith, and
Marxism Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...
. The crisis that led to the regime's fall in 1989 also started with the staunch resistance of the Reformed pastor
László Tőkés László Tőkés ( ; born 1 April 1952) is an ethnic Hungarian pastor and politician from Romania. He was a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from 2007 to 2019. Tőkés served as a Vice-President of the European Parliament from 2010 to 2 ...
, whom the authorities wanted to silence.


Romania since 1989

The Communist regime came to an abrupt end on 22 December 1989.Georgescu 1991, p. 279. The poet
Mircea Dinescu Mircea Dinescu (; born November 11, 1950) is a Romanian poet, journalist, and editor. Biography Early life and poetry He was born in Slobozia, the son of Ştefan Dinescu, a metalworker, and Aurelia (born Badea). Dinescu studied at the Faculty ...
, who was the first to speak on liberated Romanian television, began his statement with the words: "God has returned his face toward Romania again". The new constitution of Romania, adopted in 1992, guarantees the freedom of thought, opinion, and religious beliefs when manifested in a spirit of tolerance and mutual respect. Eighteen groups are currently recognized as religious denominations in the country.Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 28. Over 350 other religious associations has also been registered, but they do not enjoy the right to build houses of worship or to perform rites of baptism, marriage, or burial. Since the fall of Communism, about fourteen new Orthodox theology faculties and seminaries have opened, Orthodox monasteries have been reopened, and even new monasteries have been founded, for example, in Recea. The Holy Synod has canonized new saints, among them
Stephen the Great Stephen III of Moldavia, most commonly known as Stephen the Great ( ro, Ștefan cel Mare; ; died on 2 July 1504), was Voivode (or Prince) of Moldavia from 1457 to 1504. He was the son of and co-ruler with Bogdan II, who was murdered in 1451 ...
of Moldavia (1457–1504), and declared the second Sunday after
Pentecost Pentecost (also called Whit Sunday, Whitsunday or Whitsun) is a Christianity, Christian holiday which takes place on the 50th day (the seventh Sunday) after Easter Sunday. It commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles in the Ne ...
the "Sunday of the Romanian Saints". The Greek Catholic hierarchy was fully restored in 1990. The four Roman Catholic dioceses in Transylvania, composed primarily of Hungarian-speaking inhabitants, hoped to be united into a distinct ecclesiastical province, but only Alba Iulia was raised to an archbishopric and placed directly under the jurisdiction of the Holy See in 1992. After the exodus of the Transylvanian Saxons to Germany, only 30,000 of the members of the German Lutheran Church remained in Romania by the end of 1991. According to the 2002 census, 86.7 percent of Romania's total population was Orthodox, 4.7 percent Roman Catholic, 3.2 percent Reformed, 1.5 percent Pentecostal, 0.9 percent Greek Catholic, and 0.6 percent Baptist.


Footnotes


References

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