The history of Christianity in Hungary started in the

Roman province The Roman provinces (Latin: ''provincia'', pl. ''provinciae'') were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was rule ...

Pannonia Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now west ...

, centuries before the arrival of the

Magyars Hungarians, also known as Magyars ( ; hu, magyarok ), are a nation and ethnic group native to Hungary () and historical Hungarian lands who share a common culture, history, ancestry, and language. The Hungarian language belongs to the Uralic ...

, or Hungarians.

Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

Roman Pannonia

Celtic Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to: Language and ethnicity *pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia **Celts (modern) *Celtic languages **Proto-Celtic language *Celtic music *Celtic nations Sports Foo ...

, Illyrian,

Iranian Iranian may refer to: * Iran, a sovereign state * Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran * Iranian lan ...

and

Dacian tribes This is a list of ancient tribes in Thrace and Dacia ( grc, Θρᾴκη, Δακία) including possibly or partly Thracian or Dacian tribes, and non-Thracian or non-Dacian tribes that inhabited the lands known as Thrace and Dacia. A great number o ...

inhabited the lands now forming Hungary in Classical Antiquity. The Romans forced the tribes of

Transdanubia Transdanubia ( hu, Dunántúl; german: Transdanubien, hr, Prekodunavlje or ', sk, Zadunajsko :sk:Zadunajsko) is a traditional region of Hungary. It is also referred to as Hungarian Pannonia, or Pannonian Hungary. Administrative divisions Trad ...

the western region of present-day Hungaryinto submission between 35BC and 9AD. The region was incorporated in the Roman province of Pannonia. In the 290s, Transdanubia was divided between two new provinces, Pannonia Prima and Valeria. The natives' religion is poorly documented. The Romans erected shrines to their gods and introduced mystery cults. A Christian presence can certainly be documented from the 2ndcentury. A decorated casket-mount depicting the

marriage at Cana The transformation of water into wine at the wedding at Cana (also called the marriage at Cana, wedding feast at Cana or marriage feast at Cana) is the first miracle attributed to Jesus in the Gospel of John. In the Gospel account, Jesus Chris ...

and other scenes from the

Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus ...

was unearthed at Intercisa (now

Dunaújváros Dunaújváros (; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names) is an industrial city in Fejér County, Central Hungary. It is a city with county rights. Situated 70 kilometres (43 miles) south of Budapest on the Danube, the city i ...

). The first Christians were immigrants, particularly from

Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

and

Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...

. Most of them had Greek names. One of the earliest tombstones with a Christian inscription"Live in God"was erected for Aurelius Iodorus, "a Greek

citizen Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...

from Laodicea area", and his two children in Savaria (now

Szombathely Szombathely (; german: Steinamanger, ; see also other alternative names) is the 10th largest city in Hungary. It is the administrative centre of Vas county in the west of the country, located near the border with Austria. Szombathely lies by t ...

). No Christian churches dated before the 4thcentury have been unearthed, implying that Christian liturgy was celebrated in private homes. The

Diocletianic Persecution The Diocletianic or Great Persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. In 303, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding Christians' legal rig ...

did not severely affect the local Christian communities. No

martyrs A martyr (, ''mártys'', "witness", or , ''marturia'', stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external ...

are known, although Bishop Quirinus of Sescia was publicly executed in Savaria in 303. Emperor

Constantine the Great Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to convert to Christianity. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterran ...

Edict of Milan The Edict of Milan ( la, Edictum Mediolanense; el, Διάταγμα τῶν Μεδιολάνων, ''Diatagma tōn Mediolanōn'') was the February 313 AD agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire. Frend, W. H. C. ( ...

consolidated the Christians' position in 313. Christian cemeteries, separated from the pagans' necropolises, developed near the towns and the fortresses. The use of

fibulae The fibula or calf bone is a leg bone on the lateral side of the tibia, to which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones. Its upper extremity i ...

decorated with crosses or "

Chi Rho The Chi Rho (☧, English pronunciation ; also known as ''chrismon'') is one of the earliest forms of Christogram, formed by superimposing the first two (capital) letters—chi and rho (ΧΡ)—of the Greek word ( Christos) in such a way that ...

"-monograms spread, although they do not necessarily evidence their owners' Christian faith because Christianity was developing into a

state religion A state religion (also called religious state or official religion) is a religion or creed officially endorsed by a sovereign state. A state with an official religion (also known as confessional state), while not secular, is not necessarily a t ...

during this period. None of the towns of Pannonia Prima and Valeria are documented as

episcopal see An episcopal see is, in a practical use of the phrase, the area of a bishop's ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Phrases concerning actions occurring within or outside an episcopal see are indicative of the geographical significance of the term, mak ...

s, but historian András Mócsy proposes that bishoprics must have existed in the provincial capitals, Sopianae (present-day

Pécs Pécs ( , ; hr, Pečuh; german: Fünfkirchen, ; also known by other #Name, alternative names) is List of cities and towns of Hungary#Largest cities in Hungary, the fifth largest city in Hungary, on the slopes of the Mecsek mountains in the countr ...

) and Savaria.

Ambrose Ambrose of Milan ( la, Aurelius Ambrosius; ), venerated as Saint Ambrose, ; lmo, Sant Ambroeus . was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as a public figure, fiercely promot ...

Archbishop of Milan The Archdiocese of Milan ( it, Arcidiocesi di Milano; la, Archidioecesis Mediolanensis) is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or archdiocese of the Catholic Church in Italy which covers the areas of Milan, Monza, Lecco and Varese. It has lon ...

, wrote that

Arianism Arianism ( grc-x-koine, Ἀρειανισμός, ) is a Christological doctrine first attributed to Arius (), a Christian presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt. Arian theology holds that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, who was begotten by God ...

a doctrine condemned as

heresy Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important relig ...

at the

First Council of Nicaea The First Council of Nicaea (; grc, Νίκαια ) was a council of Christian bishops convened in the Bithynian city of Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey) by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325. This ecumenical council was the first effort ...

spread in Pannonia Valeria in the 4thcentury. Barbarian incursions forced significant part of the local Romanized population to flee from Pannonia in the 5thcentury. Christians who fled from Scarbantia (now

Sopron Sopron (; german: Ödenburg, ; sl, Šopron) is a city in Hungary on the Austrian border, near Lake Neusiedl/Lake Fertő. History Ancient times-13th century When the area that is today Western Hungary was a province of the Roman Empire, a ...

) took Bishop Quirinus's relics from Savaria to Rome around 408. Other Christian groups survived in Pannonia.

Anthony the Hermit Anthony the Hermit (ca. 468 – ca. 520), also known as Anthony of Lérins, is a Christian who is venerated as a saint. He was born in the ancient Roman province of Valeria (now Hungary), then part of the Hunnic Empire. When he was eight years o ...

was born in Valeria and he left the province only after his parents' death.

Martin Martin may refer to: Places * Martin City (disambiguation) * Martin County (disambiguation) * Martin Township (disambiguation) Antarctica * Martin Peninsula, Marie Byrd Land * Port Martin, Adelie Land * Point Martin, South Orkney Islands Austr ...

, who was to become archbishop of Braga, was also born in Pannonia.

Migration period

The

Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...

crossed the

Volga River The Volga (; russian: Во́лга, a=Ru-Волга.ogg, p=ˈvoɫɡə) is the longest river in Europe. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has a length of , and a catch ...

from the east and forced large groups of

Alans The Alans (Latin: ''Alani'') were an ancient and medieval Iranian nomadic pastoral people of the North Caucasus – generally regarded as part of the Sarmatians, and possibly related to the Massagetae. Modern historians have connected the A ...

and

Goths The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Euro ...

to abandon their homelands in the Pontic steppes. Hun, Alan and Goth troops pillaged Pannonia for the first time in the winter of 379–380. The Romans allowed the

Marcomanni The Marcomanni were a Germanic people * * * that established a powerful kingdom north of the Danube, somewhere near modern Bohemia, during the peak of power of the nearby Roman Empire. According to Tacitus and Strabo, they were Suebian. O ...

to settle in Pannonia Prima when their queen,

Fritigil Fritigil (or ''Fritigils''), Queen of the Marcomanni, is the last known ruler of the Germanic peoples who were at that time (late 4th century) probably settled in Pannonia. She is alleged to have had her residence in the present Burgenland. Fritigi ...

, converted to Christianity around 396. The Huns' center of power was transferred to the lowlands along the Middle Danube in the 420s, but their empire collapsed after the Germanic and Iranian subject peoples defeated them in the

Battle of Nedao The Battle of Nedao was a battle fought in Pannonia in 454 between the Huns and their former Germanic vassals. Nedao is believed to be a tributary of the Sava River. Battle After the death of Attila the Hun, allied forces of the subject peoples u ...

in 454. The

Gepids The Gepids, ( la, Gepidae, Gipedae, grc, Γήπαιδες) were an East Germanic tribe who lived in the area of modern Romania, Hungary and Serbia, roughly between the Tisza, Sava and Carpathian Mountains. They were said to share the relig ...

took control of the lands to the east of the river

Tisza The Tisza, Tysa or Tisa, is one of the major rivers of Central and Eastern Europe. Once, it was called "the most Hungarian river" because it flowed entirely within the Kingdom of Hungary. Today, it crosses several national borders. The Tisza be ...

and the Romans allowed the

Ostrogoths The Ostrogoths ( la, Ostrogothi, Austrogothi) were a Roman-era Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Gothic kingdoms within the Roman Empire, based upon the large Gothic populations who ...

to settle in Pannonia. In the early 470s, the Ostrogoths left for Italy and less powerful Germanic peoples, like the

Heruli The Heruli (or Herules) were an early Germanic people. Possibly originating in Scandinavia, the Heruli are first mentioned by Roman authors as one of several " Scythian" groups raiding Roman provinces in the Balkans and the Aegean Sea, attacking ...

and

Suebi The Suebi (or Suebians, also spelled Suevi, Suavi) were a large group of Germanic peoples originally from the Elbe river region in what is now Germany and the Czech Republic. In the early Roman era they included many peoples with their own name ...

, seized parts of Pannonia. The

Lombards The Lombards () or Langobards ( la, Langobardi) were a Germanic people who ruled most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the ''History of the Lombards'' (written between 787 an ...

occupied the province in the 500s. The Gepids' conversion to Christianity started in the second half of the 4thcentury. Archaeological finds proving the survival of

Germanic paganism Germanic paganism or Germanic religion refers to the traditional, culturally significant religion of the Germanic peoples. With a chronological range of at least one thousand years in an area covering Scandinavia, the British Isles, modern Germ ...

For instance, graves in Gepid cemeteries yielded amulets and pendants depicting

Thor's hammer Thor (; from non, Þórr ) is a prominent god in Germanic paganism. In Norse mythology, he is a hammer-wielding god associated with lightning, thunder, storms, sacred groves and trees, strength, the protection of humankind, hallowing, and ...

Kiszombor Kiszombor is a more than 800 years old village in Csongrád County, in the Southern Great Plain region of southern Hungary. Geography It covers an area of and has a population of 3795 people (2015). It is an agricultural village, near the Mar ...

and

Csongrád Csongrád ( ro, Ciongrad; tr, Conğrad sr, Чонград, Čongrad, archaically also ''Црноград/Crnograd'') is a town in Csongrád County in southern Hungary. History At the time of the Hungarian Conquest (the end of 9th century) th ...

. abound, but the aristocrats were buried with reliquiaries, indicating their adherence to the cult of saints. The Gepids adhered to Arianism. The Lombards came into contact with Arian missionaries in the 490s, but their pagan funerary rites survived. They placed food and drink in the graves and buried their warriors with their hunting dogs and weapons. Arianism became their dominant religion in the 560s, preserving their separation from their Catholic subjects.

Nicetius Saint Nicetius (french: Saint Nizier) (c. 525 - c. 566) was a bishop of Trier, born in the latter part of the fifth century, exact date unknown; died in 563 or more probably 566. Nicetius was the most important bishop of the ancient see of Trier ...

Bishop of Trier The Diocese of Trier, in English historically also known as ''Treves'' (IPA "tɾivz") from French ''Trèves'', is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic church in Germany.a letter to Chlothsind, the Catholic wife of King

Alboin Alboin (530s – 28 June 572) was king of the Lombards from about 560 until 572. During his reign the Lombards ended their migrations by settling in Italy, the northern part of which Alboin conquered between 569 and 572. He had a lasting eff ...

of the Lombards, unsuccessfully urging her to convert her husband to Catholicism in the winter of 565–566. The Avarsa large coalition of steppe peoplesinvaded the Gepids' land and forced them into submission in 567. A year later, the Lombards voluntarily left Pannonia for Italy, accompanied by Gepid, Saxon, Suebian and Romanized groups. The Avars were pagans who swore by the "God in heavens", or

Tengri Tengri ( zh, 騰格里; otk, 𐰚𐰇𐰚:𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, Kök Teŋri/Teŋiri, lit=Blue Heaven; Old Uyghur: ''tängri''; Middle Turkic: تآنغرِ; ky, теңир; tr, Tanrı; az, Tanrı; bg, Тангра; Proto-Turkic *''teŋri / ...

. They always placed large quantities of

grave goods Grave goods, in archaeology and anthropology, are the items buried along with the body. They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the deceased's journey into the afterlife or offerings to the gods. Grave goods may be classed as a ...

in the graves; Avar males were buried together with their horse or its parts. The Avars encouraged the

Slavs Slavs are the largest European ethnolinguistic group. They speak the various Slavic languages, belonging to the larger Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout northern Eurasia, main ...

to settle on the fringes of their empire, contributing to their expansion.

Columbanus Columbanus ( ga, Columbán; 543 – 21 November 615) was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries after 590 in the Frankish and Lombard kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil Abbey in present-day France and Bobbio Abbey i ...

was the first missionary to be contemplating proselytizing among the Avars and the Slavs around 610. He quickly abandoned the idea after realizing that "progress in faith for this people was not ready to hand". Bishop

Emmeram of Regensburg Saint Emmeram of Regensburg (also ''Emeram(m)us'', ''Emmeran'', ''Emmerano'', ''Emeran'', ''Heimrammi'', ''Haimeran'', or ''Heimeran'') was a Christian bishop and a martyr born in Poitiers, Aquitaine. Having heard of idolatry in Bavaria, Emmera ...

was also planning to visit the Avars, but Bavarian officials dissuaded him from crossing the border. A Christian community, the bearers of the Keszthely culture, flourished in the region of a former Roman fortress at

Keszthely Keszthely (; also known by other alternative names) is a Hungarian city of 20,895 inhabitants located on the western shore of Lake Balaton. It is the second largest city by the lake and one of the more important cultural, educational and economi ...

in the

Avar Khaganate The Pannonian Avars () were an alliance of several groups of Eurasian nomads of various origins. The peoples were also known as the Obri in chronicles of Rus, the Abaroi or Varchonitai ( el, Βαρχονίτες, Varchonítes), or Pseudo-Avars ...

. The local basilica with three apses was used and possibly reconstructed in the second half of the 6thcentury. The community leaders were buried in the basilica or in the nearby cemetery. A wealthy woman buried in the cemetery wore a silver garment pin with the inscription BONOSA, tentatively identified as her name. The origin of the community is uncertain, with some scholars regarding them as the descendants of the local Romanized population, others identifying them as Byzantine prisoners of war. Historian Walter Pohl proposes that the culture developed through the cohabitation of local Christians and immigrants from various lands. The fortress and the basilica were destroyed, most probably during a civil war around 630. The community survived the destruction of the fortress and new cemeteries developed in the region, but their distinctive culture quickly disappeared. The Avars supported

Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first E ...

's opponents, provoking a Frankish military campaign in 791. A civil war broke out in the khaganate and a high-ranking Avar dignitary, the '' tudun'', sent envoys to Charlemagne, offering his conversion to Christianity. The bishops who accompanied Charlemagne's son,

Pepin the Hunchback Pepin, or Pippin the Hunchback (French: Pépin le Bossu, German: Pippin der Buckelige; c. 768 / 769 – 811) was a Frankish prince. He was the eldest son of Charlemagne and noblewoman Himiltrude. He developed a humped back after birth, leading ...

, to a military campaign against the Avars held a synod on the Danube in 796. Under the direction of Patriarch Paulinus II of Aquileia, they discussed the methods of the Avars' conversion, describing them as an illiterate and irrational people. They emphasized that the Avars could not be converted by force. The missionary territories were distributed between the sees of Aquilea and

Salzburg Salzburg (, ; literally "Salt-Castle"; bar, Soizbuag, label=Austro-Bavarian) is the fourth-largest city in Austria. In 2020, it had a population of 156,872. The town is on the site of the Roman settlement of ''Iuvavum''. Salzburg was founded ...

before 811. The lands north of the river

Dráva The Drava or Drave''Utrata Fachwörterbuch ...

came under the jurisdiction of the archbishops of Salzburg. The Avars resisted the Franks and many of them left Transdanubia to settle east of the Tisza. Slavic tribes made raids against the Avars, forcing one of their leaders, the '' kapkhan'' Theodore, who was Christian, to seek assistance from the Franks. He and his people were settled in the lands between Savaria and

Carnuntum Carnuntum ( according to Ptolemy) was a Roman legionary fortress ( la, castra legionis) and headquarters of the Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century, it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province. It also became a large ...

. The Avar ''

khagan Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...

'' converted to Christianity and received the name Abraham on 21 September 805. A Byzantine list of the dioceses, compiled probably between 806 and 815, mentions the Avars among the Christian peoples under the popes' jurisdiction. The Avars' power quickly disintegrated and no Avar dignitaries were mentioned after 821. Cemeteries testify to the survival of the traditional Avar burial rites in southwest Transdanubia until the 830s.

Carolingian Age

Transdanubia was integrated in the administrative system of the

Carolingian Empire The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the L ...

between 796 and 828. The see of Salzburg ceded the lands to the west of the river

Rába The Rába (german: Raab; hu, Rába; sl, Raba ) is a river in southeastern Austria and western Hungary and a right tributary of the Danube. Geography Its source is in Austria, some kilometres east of Bruck an der Mur below Heubodenhöhe Hill. ...

to the

bishopric of Passau The Diocese of Passau is a Roman Catholic diocese in Germany that is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Munich and Freising.Pribina Pribina (c. 800861) was a Slavic prince whose adventurous career, recorded in the '' Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians'' (a historical work written in 870), illustrates the political volatility of the Franco–Slavic fronti ...

, whom the

Moravians Moravians ( cs, Moravané or colloquially , outdated ) are a West Slavic ethnographic group from the Moravia region of the Czech Republic, who speak the Moravian dialects of Czech or Common Czech or a mixed form of both. Along with the Si ...

had expelled from his lands, sought refuge in the Carolingian Empire in 833. He was baptised on the order of King

Louis the German Louis the German (c. 806/810 – 28 August 876), also known as Louis II of Germany and Louis II of East Francia, was the first king of East Francia, and ruled from 843 to 876 AD. Grandson of emperor Charlemagne and the third son of Louis the P ...

who also granted him estates on the river Zala. Pribina built a fortress, Mosapurc, in the swamps near

Lake Balaton Lake Balaton () is a freshwater lake in the Transdanubian region of Hungary. It is the largest lake in Central Europe, and one of the region's foremost tourist destinations. The Zala River provides the largest inflow of water to the lake, and ...

(at present-day

Zalavár Zalavár is a village in Hungary, located in Zala County. It is located around southwest of Lake Balaton. Name According to written sources the settlement was called 'Mosapurc' in the 9th century, "''Mosapurc regia civitate''". It was also kn ...

) and settled Slavic, Bavarian and

Swabian Swabian or Schwabian, or ''variation'', may refer to: * the German region of Swabia (German: "''Schwaben''") * Swabian German, a dialect spoken in Baden-Württemberg in south-west Germany and adjoining areas (German:"''Schwäbisch''") * Danube S ...

colonists in his estates. The Saxon wandering priest,

Gottschalk Gottschalk or Godescalc ( Old High German) is a male German name that can be translated literally as "servant of God". Latin forms include ''Godeschalcus'' and ''Godescalcus''. Given name *Godescalc of Benevento, 8th-century Lombard duke *Godescalc ...

, visited Pannonia in early 848, shortly before his teaching about

predestination Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, whereby ...

was condemned as heresy at a synod in

Mainz Mainz () is the capital and largest city of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Mainz is on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite to the place that the Main joins the Rhine. Downstream of the confluence, the Rhine flows to the north-west, with Ma ...

. A

baptistery In Christian architecture the baptistery or baptistry (Old French ''baptisterie''; Latin ''baptisterium''; Greek , 'bathing-place, baptistery', from , baptízein, 'to baptize') is the separate centrally planned structure surrounding the baptism ...

must have existed in Mosapurc already in the late 840s and Liupramm, Archbishop of Salzburg, consecrated a church in the town on 24January 850. A three-aisled basilica, dedicated to St Adrian, was built in Mosapurc around 855. Pribina died fighting against the Moravians and his son, Kocel, succeeded him in 861. Adalwin, Archbishop of Salzburg, did not appoint suffragan bishops from around 863. Kocel met the Byzantine missionary brothers, Constantine and Methodius, during their journey from Moravia to Rome in 867. Constantinethe future St Cyrilhad constructed a special alphabet for the Slavic languages and developed a Slavic liturgy. Kocel learnt the new script and entrusted the brothers with the education of 50disciples.

Pope Hadrian II Pope Adrian II ( la, Adrianus II; also Hadrian II; 79214 December 872) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 867 to his death. He continued the policy of his predecessor, Nicholas I. Despite seeking good relations with Louis ...

approved the Slavic liturgy and Methodius returned to Mosapurc in 869. Kocel persuaded the Pope to make Methodius bishop of the "see of St Andronicus", limiting the jurisdiction of the archbishops of Salzburg. To defend the interests of the Salzburg see against Methodius, an unidentified cleric compiled a historical work, the '' Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians'' around 870. Bishop Ermanrich of Passau arrested Methodius and a synod of the Bavarian prelates ordered Methodius' imprisonment for his interference in Transdanubian church affairs. Methodius' pupils had to flee from Kocel's domains.

Pope John VIII Pope John VIII ( la, Ioannes VIII; died 16 December 882) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 14 December 872 to his death. He is often considered one of the ablest popes of the 9th century. John devoted much of his papacy ...

achieved Methodius' release early in 873, but Methodius could not return to Transdanubia. After Kocel died around 875,

Arnulf of Carinthia Arnulf of Carinthia ( 850 – 8 December 899) was the duke of Carinthia who overthrew his uncle Emperor Charles the Fat to become the Carolingian king of East Francia from 887, the disputed king of Italy from 894 and the disputed emperor from ...

seized his domains. The St Adrian Basilica was rebuilt in Mosapurc during his rule. Cemeteries display the traits of Christianization of Pannonia from the 830s. Commoners were still buried near sacred groves, but the orientation of their graves became consequently west–east. The offerings of food and drink almost disappeared from their graves in 860s. The rulers' retainers were buried in new cemeteries near the churches. The ''Conversion'' lists more than 30churches in Pannonia. It also refers to Christian Avars who paid tax to the royal treasury.

Pagan Magyars

Coming from the region of the

Ural Mountains The Ural Mountains ( ; rus, Ура́льские го́ры, r=Uralskiye gory, p=ʊˈralʲskʲɪjə ˈɡorɨ; ba, Урал тауҙары) or simply the Urals, are a mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western ...

, the Magyars settled in the Pontic steppes before the late 830s. They were among the subject peoples of the

Khazar Khaganate The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...

for an uncertain period, but from the mid-9th-century they acted as an independent power.

Ahmad ibn Rustah Ahmad ibn Rustah Isfahani ( fa, احمد ابن رسته اصفهانی ''Aḥmad ibn Rusta Iṣfahānī''), more commonly known as Ibn Rustah (, also spelled ''Ibn Rusta'' and ''Ibn Ruste''), was a tenth-century Persian explorer and geographer ...

Abu Sa'id Gardezi Abū Saʿīd ʿAbd-al-Ḥayy ibn Żaḥḥāk b. Maḥmūd Gardīzī ( fa, ابوسعید عبدالحی بن ضحاک بن محمود گردیزی), better known as Gardizi (), was an 11th-century Persian historian and official, who is notable for ...

and other medieval Muslim geographers who preserved earlier scholars' records of the 9th-century Magyars described them as star- and fire-worshipers.

Al-Bakri Abū ʿUbayd ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Muḥammad ibn Ayyūb ibn ʿAmr al-Bakrī ( ar, أبو عبيد عبد الله بن عبد العزيز بن محمد بن أيوب بن عمرو البكري), or simply al-Bakrī (c. 1040–1 ...

added that the 10th-century Magyars worshipped the "Lord of the Sky" whom modern historians associate with Tengri. Later prohibitions in Christian legislation indicate that sacrifices made at

sacred grove Sacred groves or sacred woods are groves of trees and have special religious importance within a particular culture. Sacred groves feature in various cultures throughout the world. They were important features of the mythological landscape and ...

s and springs were important elements of the pagan Magyars' cult. The mutilation of corpses is well-documented in pre-Christian cemeteries, implying a fear of the return of spirits. The Magyars came into contact with Muslims, Jews and Christians, but all theories on their influence on the Magyars' religious life are speculative. The hagiographic ''Life of Constantine'' mentions that the future St Cyril run into a band of Magyar warriors in the

Crimea Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a p ...

in 860. They wanted to kill him, but his prayers allegedly convinced them to spare his life. The Magyars were regularly hired by their neighbors to intervene in their conflicts. The

Byzantine Emperor This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as ...

Leo the Wise Leo VI, called the Wise ( gr, Λέων ὁ Σοφός, Léōn ho Sophós, 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well r ...

incited them to invade Bulgaria in 894, but the Bulgarians made an alliance with the

Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა� ...

. The Pechenegs attacked the Magyars from the east, forcing them to abandon the Pontic steppes. They crossed the

Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretche ...

and settled in the plains along the Middle Danube around 895. They conquered Pannonia, destroyed Moravia and defeated the Bavarians between 900 and 907. Theotmar,

Archbishop of Salzburg The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg ( la, Archidioecesis Salisburgensis) is an archdiocese of the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church in Austria. The archdiocese is one of two Austrian archdioceses, serving alongside the Archdiocese ...

, recorded that they destroyed Christian churches in Pannonia.

Middle Ages

Towards conversion

Part of the local population survived the Magyar conquest and the Magyars captured Christians during their raids in Europe, but the role of the local Christians and the Christian prisoners in the Magyars' conversion is undocumented. Significant elements of the Christian vocabulary of the

Hungarian language Hungarian () is an Uralic language spoken in Hungary and parts of several neighbouring countries. It is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary, it is also spoken by Hungar ...

For instance, the Hungarian words for Christian ''(keresztény)'', bishop ''(püspök)'' and priest ''(pap)'' are Slavic

loanword A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because ...

s. were borrowed from local Slavic idioms. A sabretache decorated by a

Greek cross The Christian cross, with or without a figure of Christ included, is the main religious symbol of Christianity. A cross with a figure of Christ affixed to it is termed a ''crucifix'' and the figure is often referred to as the ''corpus'' (La ...

, mythical animals and

palmette The palmette is a motif in decorative art which, in its most characteristic expression, resembles the fan-shaped leaves of a palm tree. It has a far-reaching history, originating in ancient Egypt with a subsequent development through the art ...

s, found in a grave at Tiszabezdéd, may reflect Christian influence or religious syncretism, but the dead warrior was put in the grave together with his horse, in accordance with pagan practices. A paramount chieftain (or

grand prince Grand prince or great prince (feminine: grand princess or great princess) ( la, magnus princeps; Greek: ''megas archon''; russian: великий князь, velikiy knyaz) is a title of nobility ranked in honour below emperor, equal of king ...

), always a member of the

Árpád dynasty The Árpád dynasty, consisted of the members of the royal House of Árpád (), also known as Árpáds ( hu, Árpádok, hr, Arpadovići). They were the ruling dynasty of the Principality of Hungary in the 9th and 10th centuries and of the King ...

, ruled the Hungarians in the 10thcentury. The Árpáds were believed to have descended from a legendary bird of prey, called the '' turul''. The Byzantine Emperor

Constantine Porphyrogennetos Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe K ...

also wrote of two high-ranking Hungarian dignitaries, the '' gyula'' and the ''

harka Harka is a village in Győr-Moson-Sopron county, Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, ...

'', around 950. Central authority was weak and the heads of the

Magyar tribes The Magyar tribes ( , hu, magyar törzsek) or Hungarian clans were the fundamental political units within whose framework the Hungarians (Magyars) lived, before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin and the subsequent established the ...

pursued independent foreign policy. Magyar chieftains visited Constantinople and some of them converted to Christianity to facilitate the negotiations. The ''harka''

Bulcsú Bulcsú (or Vérbulcsú; died 10 August 955) was a Hungarian chieftain, one of the military leaders of prince Taksony of Hungary, a descendant of Árpád. He held the title of horka. He was one of the most important figures of the Hungarian inv ...

received baptism in 948, but he never became a devout Christian. The ''gyula'' was baptised around 950.

Patriarch The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and in c ...

Theophylact of Constantinople consecrated the monk Hierotheos as bishop of Tourkia (or Hungary) to accompany the ''gyula'' back to his domains in eastern Hungary. The late-11th-century Byzantine historian

John Skylitzes John Skylitzes, commonly Latinized as Ioannes, la, Johannes, label=none, la, Iōannēs, label=none Scylitzes ( el, Ἰωάννης Σκυλίτζης, ''Iōánnēs Skylítzēs'', or el, Σκυλίτση, ''Skylítsē'', label=none ; la, ...

claimed that Hierotheos had converted many Hungarians, but archaeological finds do not substantiate a mass conversion to Orthodox Christianity. A member of the Árpád dynasty, Termachu, was one of the Hungarian leaders visiting Constantinople in 948, but Hungarian raids against the Byzantine Empire resumed after the Germans defeated the Magyars in the

Battle of Lechfeld The Battle of Lechfeld was a series of military engagements over the course of three days from 10–12 August 955 in which the Kingdom of Germany, led by King Otto I the Great, annihilated the Hungarian army led by ''Harka ''Bulcsú and the chi ...

in 955. Grand Prince Géza decided to establish close relationships with Hungary's western neighbors in the early 970s. According to modern historians, he either wanted to stabilize Hungary's position in a period of Byzantine–German alliance, or he knew that he could only be second in the Byzantine court behind the ''gyula''.

Pope John XI Pope John XI ( la, Ioannes XI; c. 910 – December 935) was the bishop of Rome and nominal ruler of the Papal States from March 931 to his death. The true ruler of Rome at the time was his mother, Marozia, followed by his brother Alberic II. Hi ...

had already sent a missionary bishop, Zacheus, to Hungary in the early 960s, but the Pope's opponent,

Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...

Otto I Otto I (23 November 912 – 7 May 973), traditionally known as Otto the Great (german: Otto der Große, it, Ottone il Grande), was East Frankish king from 936 and Holy Roman Emperor from 962 until his death in 973. He was the oldest son of He ...

captured Zacheus at

Capua Capua ( , ) is a city and ''comune'' in the province of Caserta, in the region of Campania, southern Italy, situated north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. History Ancient era The name of Capua comes from the Etrus ...

. A

Benedictine , image = Medalla San Benito.PNG , caption = Design on the obverse side of the Saint Benedict Medal , abbreviation = OSB , formation = , motto = (English: 'Pray and Work') , foun ...

monk, Wolfgang, left the

Einsiedeln Abbey Einsiedeln Abbey (german: Kloster Einsiedeln) is a Benedictine Catholic monastery in the village of Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz, Switzerland. The abbey is dedicated to Our Lady of the Hermits, in recognition of Meinrad of Einsiedeln, a h ...

to proselytize among the Hungarians in 972, but

Piligrim Piligrim (Pilgrim of Passau, Pilegrinus, Peregrinus) (died 20 May 991) was Bishop of Passau. Piligrim was ambitious, but also concerned with the Christianization of Hungary. He was educated at the Benedictine Niederaltaich Abbey, and was made bis ...

, Bishop of Passau, forbade him to leave his diocese. In the same year, Emperor OttoI dispatched one Bishop Bruno to Hungary. Modern historians tentatively associate Bruno with "Bishop Prunwart" whom the necrology of the

Abbey of Saint Gall The Abbey of Saint Gall (german: Abtei St. Gallen) is a dissolved abbey (747–1805) in a Catholic religious complex in the city of St. Gallen in Switzerland. The Carolingian-era monastery existed from 719, founded by Saint Othmar on the spot ...

credited with the baptism of Géza and many of his subjects. Bishop

Adalbert of Prague Adalbert of Prague ( la, Sanctus Adalbertus, cs, svatý Vojtěch, sk, svätý Vojtech, pl, święty Wojciech, hu, Szent Adalbert (Béla); 95623 April 997), known in the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia by his birth name Vojtěch ( la, ...

also come to Hungary, but his mission was not successful, according to his nearly contemporaneous ''Life''. Géza and his wife, Sarolt, remained half-pagans.

Thietmar of Merseburg Thietmar (also Dietmar or Dithmar; 25 July 9751 December 1018), Prince-Bishop of Merseburg from 1009 until his death, was an important chronicler recording the reigns of German kings and Holy Roman Emperors of the Ottonian (Saxon) dynasty. Two ...

recorded that Géza offered sacrifices to pagan gods even after his baptism; Bruno of Querfurt accused Sarolt of mixing Christian and heathen practices. However, Géza launched military campaigns against the pagan chieftains, promoting Christianity and stabilizing central authority in parallel. The development of the ecclesiastical structure during Géza's reign is unknown. The earliest charter of grant to the Benedictine Pannonhalma Abbey states that Géza ordered its establishment.

King St Stephen

Géza died in 997, leaving Hungary to his devout Christian son,

Stephen Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...

. Stephen had married Gisela of Bavaria, a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor

Otto III Otto III (June/July 980 – 23 January 1002) was Holy Roman Emperor from 996 until his death in 1002. A member of the Ottonian dynasty, Otto III was the only son of the Emperor Otto II and his wife Theophanu. Otto III was crowned as King of ...

. His kinsman, Koppány, challenged his right to rule, but Stephen's heavy cavalry, mainly Bavarian and

knights, overcame Koppány. To demonstrate his right to rule

by the grace of God By the Grace of God ( la, Dei Gratia, abbreviated D.G.) is a formulaic phrase used especially in Christian monarchies as an introductory part of the full styles of a monarch. For example in England and later the United Kingdom, the phrase was f ...

, Stephen requested a royal crown from Emperor Otto or

Pope Sylvester II Pope Sylvester II ( – 12 May 1003), originally known as Gerbert of Aurillac, was a French-born scholar and teacher who served as the bishop of Rome and ruled the Papal States from 999 to his death. He endorsed and promoted study of Arab and Gre ...

. His request was granted and he was crowned the first

king of Hungary The King of Hungary ( hu, magyar király) was the ruling head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 (or 1001) to 1918. The style of title "Apostolic King of Hungary" (''Apostoli Magyar Király'') was endorsed by Pope Clement XIII in 175 ...

on 25December 1000 or 1January 1001. Stephen started the systematic Christianization of Hungary. He established at least eight bishoprics and six monasteries, making magnanimous grants to them. Evidently founded before Stephen's coronation, the see of Veszprém was the first Catholic bishopric. The Archbishopric of Esztergom was established in 1001. Whether Kalocsa was set up as a second archbishopric without suffragan bishops, or as a bishopric is uncertain. Stephen founded the Benedictine monasteries at Pécsvárad, Zalavár, Bakonybél and Somlóvásárhely. He ordered the collection of the

tithe A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash or cheques or more ...

, a church tax, for the clergy, and opened Hungary for pilgrims travelling to the

Holy Land The Holy Land; Arabic: or is an area roughly located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River, traditionally synonymous both with the biblical Land of Israel and with the region of Palestine. The term "Holy ...

. Christianity could not spread without the application of state violence. Stephen outlawed pagan practices and prescribed the adoption of a Christian way of life. Bruno of Querfurt witnessed how Christian soldiers blinded many of the Black Hungariansan ethnic group in southern Hungaryto enforce their baptism. Stephen's first laws ordered the observation of

feast days The calendar of saints is the traditional Christian method of organizing a liturgical year by associating each day with one or more saints and referring to the day as the feast day or feast of said saint. The word "feast" in this context does ...

and fasts and the punishment of those who disturbed the

mass Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different ele ...

by murmuring. The pagans were regularly baptized before their formal education of the Christian doctrines began. Written sources recorded the activities of Slavic, German and Italian missionaries. Bruno of Querfurt met with Adalbert of Prague's tutor, Radla, and one of Adalbert's disciples,

Astrik Saint Astrik of Pannonhalma (also known as Anastasius, Astericus, Ascrick, Astrissicus) (died c. 1030/1040) is a saint of the 11th century. Life Radla was a Czech or Croat from Bohemia, who was a monk in Hungary. He probably received the habit at ...

, in Hungary. Bruno's own mission among the Black Hungarians was unsuccessful. A Venetian monk,

Gerard Gerard is a masculine forename of Proto-Germanic origin, variations of which exist in many Germanic and Romance languages. Like many other early Germanic names, it is dithematic, consisting of two meaningful constituents put together. In this ca ...

, who was consecrated the first

bishop of Csanád A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is c ...

in 1030, proselytized in the

Banat Banat (, ; hu, Bánság; sr, Банат, Banat) is a geographical and historical region that straddles Central and Eastern Europe and which is currently divided among three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania (the counties of ...

. The longer version of his ''Life'' describe him preaching among the pagan Hungarians who were brought to him by royal officials, with seven monks acting as his interpreters. The first priests were foreigners. Bonipert, the first

bishop of Pécs A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ca ...

, came from France or Lombardy; one of his priests, Hilduin, was a Frenchman; the hermits Zoerard and Benedict were born in Poland or

Istria Istria ( ; Croatian and Slovene: ; ist, Eîstria; Istro-Romanian, Italian and Venetian: ; formerly in Latin and in Ancient Greek) is the largest peninsula within the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic betwe ...

. Hungarian liturgy followed southern German, Lotharingian and northern Italian patterns. The first native cleric known by name, Maurus, was consecrated as bishop of Pécs in 1036. Stephen's first laws mention priests acting together with the ''

ispán The ispánRady 2000, p. 19.''Stephen Werbőczy: The Customary Law of the Renowned Kingdom of Hungary in Three Parts (1517)'', p. 450. or countEngel 2001, p. 40.Curta 2006, p. 355. ( hu, ispán, la, comes or comes parochialis, and sk, župan)Kirs ...

s'' (or heads) of the

counties A county is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesChambers Dictionary, L. Brookes (ed.), 2005, Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, Edinburgh in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French ...

, implying that the first parishes were established in county seats. His second law book prescribed that every ten villages were to build a church, but a fully developed parish system cannot be documented for centuries. The earliest churches, mainly made of wood or wattle-and-daub, were built in or near fortresses. Stone churches mainly followed Italian patterns (as it is demonstrated by the '' Acanthus spinosa'' carved on the chapiters of the columns in the Romanesque Veszprém Cathedral). Latin literacy started in Hungary during Stephen's reign. Bishop Fulbert of Chartres sent a copy of

Priscian Priscianus Caesariensis (), commonly known as Priscian ( or ), was a Latin grammarian and the author of the ''Institutes of Grammar'', which was the standard textbook for the study of Latin during the Middle Ages. It also provided the raw materia ...

's ''Institutes of Grammar''a popular handbook of Latinto Bonipert of Pécs around 1020. An unidentified foreign cleric wrote a king's mirror, known as '' Admonitions'', for Stephen's son and heir, Emeric, in the 1020s. Gerard of Csanád completed his '' Deliberatio'' in Hungary. Orthodox communities existed in Stephen's kingdom. He (or his father) established a monastery for Byzantine nuns in Veszprémvölgy. One of his opponents,

Ajtony Ajtony, Ahtum or Achtum ( hu, Ajtony, bg, Охтум, ro, Ahtum, sr, Ахтум) was an early-11th-century ruler in the territory now known as Banat in present Romania and Serbia. His primary source is the ''Long Life of Saint Gerard'', a 14 ...

, who ruled the

, converted to Orthodoxy and established a monastery for Greek monks at his seat. After Stephen's troops conquered Ajtony's domains, the monks were transferred to a new monastery, built for them. Archaeologists assume that

pectoral cross A pectoral cross or pectorale (from the Latin ''pectoralis'', "of the chest") is a cross that is worn on the chest, usually suspended from the neck by a cord or chain. In ancient and medieval times pectoral crosses were worn by both clergy and ...

es found in almost thirty 11th-century graves reflect the dead's Orthodox faith. Byzantine documents made sporadic references to "metropolitan bishops of Tourkia", proving the existence of a

titular Titular may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * Title character in a narrative work, the character referred to in its title Religion * Titular (Catholicism), a cardinal who holds a titulus, one of the main churches of Rome ** Titular bisho ...

Hungarian Orthodox metropolitanate for more than a century. The ''Admonitions'' and Gerard's ''Deliberatio'' wrote of anti-Trinitarians, presenting them as a serious problem for Catholic missions in Hungary. Gerard described them as heretics who denied the

resurrection of the dead General resurrection or universal resurrection is the belief in a resurrection of the dead, or resurrection from the dead (Koine: , ''anastasis onnekron''; literally: "standing up again of the dead") by which most or all people who have died w ...

and threatened the Church's position with the assistance of the "followers of Methodius". Modern historians propose that these "heretics" were Bogumil refugees from Bulgaria or local Christians converted by non-Catholic missionaries.

Revolts and consolidation

StephenI who survived his son appointed his sister's son, the Venetian

Peter Orseolo Peter Orseolo, or Peter the Venetian ( hu, Velencei Péter; 1010 or 1011 – 1046, or late 1050s), was the King of Hungary twice. He first succeeded his uncle, King Stephen I, in 1038. His favoritism towards his foreign courtiers caused an u ...

as his heir. To secure Peter's position, Stephen ordered the mutilation of his cousin,

Vazul Vazul, or Vászoly, (before 997–1031 or 1032) was a member of the House of Árpád, a grandson of Taksony, Grand Prince of the Hungarians. The only other certain information about his life is that he was kept in captivity and blinded in the fo ...

, who inclined towards paganism. Vazul's three sons,

Levente Levente (between 1010 and 1015 – 1047) was a member of the House of Árpád, a great-grandson of Taksony, Grand Prince of the Hungarians. He was expelled from Hungary in 1031 or 1032, and spent many years in Bohemia, Poland and the Kievan Rus ...

Andrew Andrew is the English form of a given name common in many countries. In the 1990s, it was among the top ten most popular names given to boys in English-speaking countries. "Andrew" is frequently shortened to "Andy" or "Drew". The word is derive ...

and

Béla Béla may refer to: * Béla (crater), an elongated lunar crater * Béla (given name), a common Hungarian male given name See also * Bela (disambiguation) * Belá (disambiguation) * Bělá (disambiguation) Bělá, derived from ''bílá'' (''whit ...

, were forced into exile. Peter succeeded Stephen in 1038. He distrusted the native aristocrats and replaced them with Germans and Italians. The neglected lords dethroned him and elected one of their number,

Samuel Aba Samuel Aba ( hu, Aba Sámuel; before 990 or 1009 – 5 July 1044) reigned as King of Hungary between 1041 and 1044. He was born to a prominent family with extensive domains in the region of the Mátra Hills. Based on reports in the ''Gesta ...

, king, but the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry III, invaded Hungary and restored Peter. Peter swore fealty to the Emperor and introduced Bavarian laws. Peter remained unpopular and a group of discontented aristocrats offered the throne to Vazul's exiled sons in 1046. Before the three dukes returned to Hungary, a

popular uprising Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...

began. The '' Annales Altahenses'' described the rebels as pagans who murdered clerics and foreigners. Bishop Gerald of Csanád, thrown from the hill now bearing his name to the Danube, was one of their victims. They captured and blinded the King, paving the way for Vazul's sons. The eldest of them, Levente, whom the Hungarian chronicles described as a pagan, died unexpectedly. The three bishops who survived the uprising crowned his Christian younger brother, Andrew, king. The ''Annales Altahenses'' accused him of anti-Christian acts during the revolt, but as king he restored StephenI's decrees, outlawing paganism. AndrewI was dethroned by his brother, Béla. BélaI held a general assembly, summoning two elders from each village to Székesfehérvár in 1061. The assembled commoners put pressure on him to expel the priests from the country, but he dissolved the meeting by force. Dynastic conflicts continued, but the position of Christianity consolidated in Hungary. Archaeological finds reveal the general adoption of Christian customs by around 1100. Grave goods disappeared and churches were built in pagan cemeteries. New Benedictine

Tihany Abbey The Tihany Abbey is a Benedictine monastery established in Tihany in the Kingdom of Hungary in 1055. Its patrons are the Virgin Mary and Saint Aignan of Orleans. Foundation The Benedictine monastery in Tihany was established in 1055 by King And ...

was founded by AndrewI in 1055,

Szekszárd Abbey The Szekszárd Abbey was a Benedictine monastery established in Szekszárd in the Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The ...

by BélaI in 1061, and Somogyvár Abbey by LadislausI in 1091. and OrthodoxAndrewI established monasteries for Orthodox monks at

Tihany Tihany /ˈtihɒɲ/ is a village on the northern shore of Lake Balaton on the Tihany Peninsula (Hungary, Veszprém County). The whole peninsula is a historical district. The center of the district is the Benedictine Tihany Abbey, which was founde ...

and

Visegrád Visegrád (; german: Plintenburg; la, Pone Navata or ; sk, Vyšehrad) is a castle town in Pest County, Hungary. It is north of Budapest on the right bank of the Danube in the Danube Bend. It had a population of 1,864 in 2010. The town is the ...

. monasteries were established by the monarchs. Otto from the Győr kindred was the first aristocrat to found a Benedictine

family monastery A house monastery, family monastery or dynastic monastery (german: Hauskloster) is a Christian monastery that has a particular relationship with a noble family. Often, but not always, what subsequently became the house monastery was founded by t ...

at Zselicszentjakab in 1061.

Cathedral chapter According to both Catholic and Anglican canon law, a cathedral chapter is a college of clerics ( chapter) formed to advise a bishop and, in the case of a vacancy of the episcopal see in some countries, to govern the diocese during the vacancy. ...

s became important institutions of education. The parishes in the dioceses were grouped into

deaneries A deanery (or decanate) is an ecclesiastical entity in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Anglican Communion, the Evangelical Church in Germany, and the Church of Norway. A deanery is either the jurisdiction or residenc ...

, each headed by a senior cleric, by around 1100. BélaI's son, Ladislaus I, took Draconian measures for the protection of property rights, even ignoring the idea of

church asylum Church may refer to: Religion * Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities * Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination * Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship * Chri ...

. His laws also dealt with the local Muslim and

Jewish Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...

communities. He forbade Muslims who had converted to Christianity to return to their old faith and ordered the Jews to abandon their Christian wives and to dismiss their Christian servants. Ladislaus supported Popes Victor III and

Urban II Pope Urban II ( la, Urbanus II; – 29 July 1099), otherwise known as Odo of Châtillon or Otho de Lagery, was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 March 1088 to his death. He is best known for convening th ...

against

Antipope Clement III Guibert or Wibert of Ravenna ( 10298 September 1100) was an Italian prelate, archbishop of Ravenna, who was elected pope in 1080 in opposition to Pope Gregory VII and took the name Clement III. Gregory was the leader of the movement in the chur ...

during the first phase of the

Investiture Controversy The Investiture Controversy, also called Investiture Contest (German: ''Investiturstreit''; ), was a conflict between the Church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops ( investiture) and abbots of mona ...

. He procured the

canonization Canonization is the declaration of a deceased person as an officially recognized saint, specifically, the official act of a Christian communion declaring a person worthy of public veneration and entering their name in the canon catalogue of ...

of the first Hungarian saintsKing StephenI, Prince Emeric, Bishop Gerard and the hermits Zoerard and Benedictin 1083. He summoned the Hungarian prelates to synod at Szabolcs in 1091. The synod forbade the village communities to abandon the land where their church stood, but authorized the villagers to elect one of their number to represent them at the Sunday mass if their village was far away from the church. The synod allowed the married priests to live with their wives in clear contradiction with the idea of

clerical celibacy Clerical celibacy is the requirement in certain religions that some or all members of the clergy be unmarried. Clerical celibacy also requires abstention from deliberately indulging in sexual thoughts and behavior outside of marriage, because thes ...

, promoted by the

Gregorian Reform The Gregorian Reforms were a series of reforms initiated by Pope Gregory VII and the circle he formed in the papal curia, c. 1050–80, which dealt with the moral integrity and independence of the clergy. The reforms are considered to be na ...

. LadislausI's nephew and successor,

Coloman the Learned Coloman the Learned, also the Book-Lover or the Bookish ( hu, Könyves Kálmán; hr, Koloman; sk, Koloman Učený; 10703February 1116) was King of Hungary from 1095 and King of Croatia from 1097 until his death. Because Coloman and his younge ...

, had to deal with the problems that the armies of the

First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic ...

caused during their march across Hungary towards the Holy Land in 1096. He defeated and massacred two crusader hordes to prevent their pillaging raids, but allowed

Godfrey of Bouillon Godfrey of Bouillon (, , , ; 18 September 1060 – 18 July 1100) was a French nobleman and pre-eminent leader of the First Crusade. First ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1099 to 1100, he avoided the title of king, preferring that of princ ...

and his troops to cross Hungary after Godfrey offered his brother, Baldwin, as a hostage to guarantee his troops' good conduct. Coloman renounced the right of appointing the bishops, but in practice the cathedral chapters continued to elect the monarchs' nominees as bishops. His decrees toned down the harshness of his predecessors' laws. The preamble to his law-code described Hungary as a fully converted Christian realm, but his decree ordering burials in graveyards shows that this was not a general practice. He ordered the Muslims to build Christian churches, to eat pork and to marry off their daughters to Christians, showing his intention to assimilate the local Muslim communities. The Esztergom synod of the Hungarian prelates prohibited the monks from preaching, baptizing and offering

absolution Absolution is a traditional theological term for the forgiveness imparted by ordained Christian priests and experienced by Christian penitents. It is a universal feature of the historic churches of Christendom, although the theology and the pr ...

to sinners.

Catholic heyday

Burials outside churchyards disappeared early in the 12thcentury. Large three-aisled basilicas with two towers were built at the episcopal sees. Churches built at lay landowners' estates played an important role in the development of parishes. They were either single-naved churches or

rotundas A rotunda () is any building with a circular ground plan, and sometimes covered by a dome. It may also refer to a round room within a building (a famous example being the one below the dome of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.). Th ...

. The aristocrats regarded these churches as part of their patrimony and freely appointed their priests. Most churches were dedicated to the Virgin Mary,

George of Lydda Saint George ( Greek: Γεώργιος (Geórgios), Latin: Georgius, Arabic: القديس جرجس; died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was a Christian who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to tradition he was a sol ...

, the

Archangel Michael Michael (; he, מִיכָאֵל, lit=Who is like El od, translit=Mīḵāʾēl; el, Μιχαήλ, translit=Mikhaḗl; la, Michahel; ar, ميخائيل ، مِيكَالَ ، ميكائيل, translit=Mīkāʾīl, Mīkāl, Mīkhāʾīl), also ...

, Martin of Tours,

Nicholas of Myra Saint Nicholas of Myra, ; la, Sanctus Nicolaus (traditionally 15 March 270 – 6 December 343), also known as Nicholas of Bari, was an early Christian bishop of Greek descent from the maritime city of Myra in Asia Minor (; modern-day Demre ...

, and

Peter the Apostle ) (Simeon, Simon) , birth_date = , birth_place = Bethsaida, Gaulanitis, Syria, Roman Empire , death_date = Between AD 64–68 , death_place = probably Vatican Hill, Rome, Italia, Roman Empire , parents = John (or Jonah; Jona) , occupation ...

, but the first Hungarian saints' cult quickly spread after their canonization. The first

Cistercian The Cistercians, () officially the Order of Cistercians ( la, (Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint B ...

and the

Premonstratensian The Order of Canons Regular of Prémontré (), also known as the Premonstratensians, the Norbertines and, in Britain and Ireland, as the White Canons (from the colour of their habit), is a religious order of canons regular of the Catholic Church ...

monasteries were established in the 1140s. The monarchs preferred the Cistercians,For instance, the Cistercian abbeys of

Zirc Zirc (german: Sirtz) is a town in Veszprém county, Hungary. It is the administrative seat of Zirc District. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Jews lived in Zirc. In 1910, 92 Jews lived in Zirc, Some of them ...

(1182),

Szentgotthárd Szentgotthárd ( sl, Monošter; german: St. Gotthard) is the westernmost town of Hungary. It is situated on the Rába River near the Austrian border. History The town took its name from, and grew up round, the Cistercian Szentgotthárd Abbey, fo ...

(1183) and Pilis (1184) were royal foundations. but the aristocrats founded PremonstratensianFor example, Premonstratensian priory was established at

Zsámbék Zsámbék (german: Schambeck) is a town in Pest County, Hungary. Location Zsámbék is located 30 km west of Budapest along the M1 motorway in the Gerecse Mountains. Its neighbouring villages are Tök, Perbál, Páty, Herceghalom, Mán ...

by the Ajnárdfi, at Türje by the Türje kindred. houses. King Géza II settled the

Knights Hospitaller The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem ( la, Ordo Fratrum Hospitalis Sancti Ioannis Hierosolymitani), commonly known as the Knights Hospitaller (), was a medieval and early modern Catholic military order. It was headq ...

and

Templar , colors = White mantle with a red cross , colors_label = Attire , march = , mascot = Two knights riding a single horse , equipment ...

in the country and established a Hungarian order of hospitaller canons in honor of King St Stephen. Hungarian clerics studied in the universities of Paris and

Oxford Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to the ...

from the 1150s. They were mostly canons who financed their studies from the income of their prebends in collegiate chapters. The use of written records spread. The collegiate chapters and major monasteries played an important role in the process as " places of authentication", providing notary services from around 1200. The first extant religious text in Hungariana burial speechwas written around 1200. GézaII concluded a

concordat A concordat is a convention between the Holy See and a sovereign state that defines the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state in matters that concern both,René Metz, ''What is Canon Law?'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1960 st Edi ...

with

Pope Alexander III Pope Alexander III (c. 1100/1105 – 30 August 1181), born Roland ( it, Rolando), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 7 September 1159 until his death in 1181. A native of Siena, Alexander became pope after a con ...

. Géza's right to dismiss bishops or transfer them from a see to another was abolished, but he was authorized to deliver the

pallium The pallium (derived from the Roman ''pallium'' or ''palla'', a woolen cloak; : ''pallia'') is an ecclesiastical vestment in the Catholic Church, originally peculiar to the pope, but for many centuries bestowed by the Holy See upon metropol ...

to the archbishops and to control correspondence between the Hungarian prelates and the Holy See. Géza's son and successor, Stephen III, renounced the right to appoint the abbots of the royal monasteries and to administer the goods of vacant bishoprics. When Stephen died in 1172, his younger brother,

, succeeded him.

Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom Lucas ( hu, Lukács; 1120 – 1181), also known as Luke, was a Hungarian prelate and diplomat in the 12th century. He was Bishop of Eger between 1156 and 1158, and Archbishop of Esztergom from 1158 until his death in 1181. Lucas is believed to ...

, denied to crown him, but the Pope authorized the archbishop of Kalocsa to perform the ceremony. Lucas referred to Béla's alleged

simony Simony () is the act of selling church offices and roles or sacred things. It is named after Simon Magus, who is described in the Acts of the Apostles as having offered two disciples of Jesus payment in exchange for their empowering him to i ...

to explain his resistance, but he most probably feared of the influence of the Orthodox Church Béla who had grewn up in the Byzantine Empire. Schism between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches had deepened. BélaIII could not introduce the cult of the Bulgarian hermit John of Rila in Hungary. Job, Archbishop of Esztergom, entered into an unfriendly correspondence with the Byzantine Emperor

Isaac II Angelos Isaac II Angelos or Angelus ( grc-gre, Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος, ; September 1156 – January 1204) was Byzantine Emperor from 1185 to 1195, and again from 1203 to 1204. His father Andronikos Doukas Angelos was a ...

about the differences between Catholic and Orthodox theologies. Béla's elder son and successor, Emeric, proposed

Pope Innocent III Pope Innocent III ( la, Innocentius III; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 to his death in 16 ...

to appoint a Catholic bishop to administer the Greek monasteries in Hungary in 1204. He did not achieve his goal, but the Greek monasteries disappeared during the following decades. Kallosdi kerek templom

BélaIII and his successors adopted an active foreign policy, often in close alliance with the Papacy. Emeric waged a war against

Ban Kulin Kulin ( sh-Cyrl, Кулин; d. November 1204) was the Ban of Bosnia from 1180 to 1204, first as a vassal of the Byzantine Empire and then of the Kingdom of Hungary, although his state was de facto independent. He was one of Bosnia's most prom ...

of Bosnia whom Pope InnocentIII regarded as the Bogumils' main protector. Emeric's brother, Andrew II, launched a crusade to the Holy Land in 1217–1218. Andrew's son,

Béla IV Béla may refer to: * Béla (crater), an elongated lunar crater * Béla (given name), a common Hungarian male given name See also * Bela (disambiguation) * Belá (disambiguation) * Bělá (disambiguation) Bělá, derived from ''bílá'' (''wh ...

, supported the Dominicans' missions among the

Cumans The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian exonym ), were a Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confederation. After the Mongol invasion (1237), many so ...

of the Pontic steppes. The mendicant orders settled in Hungary in the 1220s. In contrast with the traditional monastic orders, the mendicants willingly mingled with the common people to spread Christian ideas. One of the eight initial provinces of the Dominicans was set up in Hungary. Friar Paulus Hungarus, who had taught

Roman law Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (c. 449 BC), to the '' Corpus Juris Civilis'' (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman emperor J ...

at the university of Bologna, returned to his homeland to found the first Dominican priories in 1221. The

Franciscans , image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg , image_size = 200px , caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans , abbreviation = OFM , predecessor = , ...

came to Hungary in 1229. AndrewII made generous grants to the aristocrats, threatening the social position of the royal servants and castle warriors (small landholders who had been directly subject to the monarch or his officials). The latter forced the monarch to summarize their liberties in a

royal charter A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, b ...

, known as the

Golden Bull of 1222 The Golden Bull of 1222 was a golden bull, or edict, issued by Andrew II of Hungary. King Andrew II was forced by his nobles to accept the Golden Bull (Aranybulla), which was one of the first examples of constitutional limits being placed on the ...

. The Golden Bull also confirmed the clerics' exemption of royal taxes, but limited the prelates' right to trade in salt and prohibited the collection of the tithe in cash. The clerics' liberties were summarized in a separate document, most probably around the end of 1222. The King confirmed that only

ecclesiastical court An ecclesiastical court, also called court Christian or court spiritual, is any of certain courts having jurisdiction mainly in spiritual or religious matters. In the Middle Ages, these courts had much wider powers in many areas of Europe than be ...

s could sit in judgement on clerics, but it also prohibited the ordination of serfs as priests. AndrewII employed Jews and Muslims in the administration of royal revenues, outraging the prelates and Pope HonoriusIII. The Pope authorized Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom to apply ecclesiastical sanctions against the King in 1231. AndrewII was forced to re-issue the Golden Bull, but without the articles that prejudged the interests of the Church. The new document exempted the prelates' estates of the jurisdiction of the ''ispáns'' and established the monopoly of

s in matters relating to marriage and dowry. It also authorized the archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate the monarch if he did not respect its articles. Arcbhbishop Robert placed Hungary under interdict for the employment of Muslims in state administration and the Pope sent a legate to negotiate with AndrewII. Their compromise was summarized in a treaty which obliged the King to dismiss his Muslim and Jewish officials and to enable the prelates to trade in salt. The Dominican

Friar Julian Friar Julian ( hu, Julianus barát) was one of a group of Hungarian Dominican friars who, in 1235, left Hungary in order to find those Magyars who — according to the chronicles — remained in the eastern homeland. After travelling a gr ...

learnt of the

Mongols The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...

' plan to invade Europe during his mission among the

Eastern Magyars The term Eastern Hungarians ( hu, Keleti magyarok; or "Eastern Magyars") is used in scholarship to refer to peoples related to the Proto-Hungarians, that is, theoretically parts of the ancient community that remained in the vicinity of the Ural ...

(a pagan people on the Volga) in 1236. The Mongols forced thousands of pagan

to seek refuge in Hungary in 1240. The Mongols stormed into Hungary and defeated the royal army in the

Battle of Muhi The Battle of Mohi (11 April 1241), also known as Battle of the Sajó River''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East'', Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 279; "Although Mongol losses in t ...

on 11April 1241. The Mongols devastated the country for a year, but they withdrew without leaving garrisons behind. Hungary survived the Mongol occupation and BélaIV introduced measures to strengthen the defence system. He urged the wealthiest landowners, both the laymen and the prelates, to build stone castles. The position of the archbishops of Esztergom strengthened. BélaIV authorized the archbishop to supervise royal coinage. He also enabled the

noblemen Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The characteristi ...

to will their estates to the archbishopric and to enter into the archbishop's service. Béla's successor,

Stephen V Stephen V may refer to: * Pope Stephen IV, aka Stephen V, Pope from 816 to 817 *Pope Stephen V (885–891) *Stephen V of Hungary (born before 1239 – 1272), King of Hungary and Croatia, Duke of Styria *Stephen V Báthory Stephen Báthory of Ec ...

prevented the archbishop's noble warriors from demanding the privileges of the "true nobles of the realm". Stephen granted Esztergom County to the archbishops, making them its perpetual ''ispán''.

Asceticism Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...

and the development of eremitical communities was an eminent feature of the spiritual life in the 13th century. A canon of Esztergom,

Eusebius Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος ; 260/265 – 30 May 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilus (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμφίλου), was a Greek historian of Christianity, exegete, and Chris ...

, settled in the woods of the Pilis Hills to live as a hermit in 1246. Ascetics joined him and their community developed into the new order of hermits, known as Paulines during the following decades. The Dominicans lost favour with BélaIV after his daughter,

Margaret Margaret is a female first name, derived via French () and Latin () from grc, μαργαρίτης () meaning "pearl". The Greek is borrowed from Persian. Margaret has been an English name since the 11th century, and remained popular through ...

, who was a Dominican nun, refused to marry, ruining his plan of a marriage alliance. Béla thereafter supported the Franciscans who established more than forty priories during the following decades.

Notes

References

Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * {{History of Christianity in Europe Catholic Church in Hungary Eastern Christianity in Hungary Protestantism in Hungary