Hindu

Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. The terms and
epithets for deity within the diverse traditions of
Hinduism

Hinduism vary, and
include Deva, Devi, Ishvara, Bhagavān and Bhagavati.[1][2][note 1]
The deities of
Hinduism

Hinduism have evolved from the Vedic era (2nd
millennium BCE) through the medieval era (1st millennium CE),
regionally within Nepal,
India

India and in southeast Asia, and across
Hinduism's diverse traditions.[3][4] The
Hindu

Hindu deity concept varies
from a personal god as in
Yoga

Yoga school of
Hindu

Hindu philosophy,[5][6] to 33
Vedic deities,[7] to hundreds of Puranics of Hinduism.[8]
Illustrations of major deities include Vishnu, Sri (Lakshmi), Shiva,
Sati,
Brahma

Brahma and Saraswati. These deities have distinct and complex
personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of the same Ultimate
Reality called Brahman.[9][note 2] From ancient times, the idea of
equivalence has been cherished for all Hindus, in its texts and in
early 1st millennium sculpture with concepts such as [10]
Ardhanārīshvara (half Shiva, half Parvati),[11] with myths and
temples that feature them together, declaring they are the
same.[12][13][14] Major deities have inspired their own Hindu
traditions, such as Vaishnavism,
Shaivism

Shaivism and Shaktism, but with
shared mythology, ritual grammar, theosophy, axiology and
polycentrism.[15][16][17] Some
Hindu

Hindu traditions such as
Smartism
.jpg/440px-Smarth_Brahmins_(9969593914).jpg)
Smartism from
mid 1st millennium CE, have included multiple major deities as
henotheistic manifestations of
Saguna Brahman, and as a means to
realizing
Nirguna Brahman.[18][19][20]
Hindu

Hindu deities are represented with various icons and anicons, in
paintings and sculptures, called Murtis and Pratimas.[21][22][23] Some
Hindu

Hindu traditions, such as ancient Charvakas rejected all deities and
concept of god or goddess,[24][25][26] while 19th-century British
colonial era movements such as the
Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj
rejected deities and adopted monotheistic concepts similar to
Abrahamic religions.[27][28]
Hindu

Hindu deities have been adopted in other
religions such as Jainism,[29] and in regions outside
India

India such as
predominantly Buddhist
Thailand

Thailand and
Japan
.svg/440px-Microsoft_logo_(2012).svg.png)
Japan where they continue to be
revered in regional temples or arts.[30][31][32]
In ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism, the human body is
described as a temple,[33][34] and deities are described to be parts
residing within it,[35][36] while the
Brahman

Brahman (Absolute Reality,
God)[18][37] is described to be the same, or of similar nature, as the
Atman (self, soul), which Hindus believe is eternal and within every
living being.[38][39][40] Deities in
Hinduism

Hinduism are as diverse as its
traditions, and a
Hindu

Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic,
monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.[41][42][43]
Contents
1 Devas and devis
1.1 Characteristics of Vedic era deities
1.2 Characteristics of medieval era deities
1.3 Symbolism
2 Ishvara
3 Number of deities
3.1 Millions, one or one-ness
4 Iconography and practices
4.1 Temple and worship
5 Examples
5.1
Trimurti

Trimurti and Tridevi
5.2 Avatars of
Hindu

Hindu deities
5.3 Major regional and pan-Indian
Hindu

Hindu deities
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
8.1 Sources
9 Further reading
10 External links
Devas and devis[edit]
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Main articles:
Deva (Hinduism)
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Deva (Hinduism) and Devi
Deities in
Hinduism

Hinduism are referred to as Deva (masculine) and Devi
(feminine).[44][45][46] The root of these terms mean "heavenly,
divine, anything of excellence".[47] According to Douglas Harper, the
etymological roots of Deva mean "a shining one," from *div- "to
shine," and it is a cognate with Greek dios "divine" and Zeus, and
Latin deus (Old Latin deivos).[48]
In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called
Asuras.[49][50] By the late Vedic period (~500 BCE), benevolent
supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras. In post-Vedic
texts, such as the
Puranas

Puranas and the
Itihasas

Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas
represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.[3][4] In some medieval
Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted
with their equally powerful, but malevolent half-brothers referred to
as the Asuras.[51]
Hindu

Hindu deities are part of Indian mythology, both Devas and Devis
feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism.[52][53]
Characteristics of Vedic era deities[edit]
In Vedic literature, Devas and Devis represent the forces of nature
and some represent moral values (such as the Adityas, Varuna, and
Mitra), each symbolizing the epitome of a specialized knowledge,
creative energy, exalted and magical powers (Siddhis).[54][55]
Vedic era deities evolved over time.
Rudra

Rudra (left) is represented in
Vedic literature, is shown as Shiva-
Rudra

Rudra 2nd-century sculpture
(middle), and as
Shiva

Shiva (meaning kind) in 13th-century art work
(right). The iconography evolved, retaining some symbolic elements
such as trident, axe or antelope.[56][57]
The most referred to Devas in the
Rig Veda

Rig Veda are Indra,
Agni

Agni (fire) and
Soma, with "fire deity" called the friend of all humanity, it and Soma
being the two celebrated in a yajna fire ritual that marks major Hindu
ceremonies. Savitr, Vishnu,
Rudra

Rudra (later given the exclusive epithet
of Shiva), and
Prajapati

Prajapati (later Brahma) are gods and hence Devas.[30]
The
Vedas

Vedas describes a number of significant Devis such as Ushas(dawn),
Saranyu(Dusk), Prithvi/Bhudevi(earth), Gayatri(Adi shakti), Aditi
(cosmic moral order), Saraswati(river, knowledge), Lakshmi(wealth),
Nirṛti/Dhumavati(destruction), Ratri(night), Chhaya(shadow),
Aranyani(forest), and bounty goddesses such as Dinsana, Raka,
Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati, Mahi among others are mentioned in the
Rigveda.[58] Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts
dated to be pre-Buddhist, but verses dedicated to her do not suggest
that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era.[59]
All gods and goddesses are distinguished in the Vedic times, but in
the post-Vedic texts (~500 BCE to 200 CE), and particularly in the
early medieval era literature, they are ultimately seen as aspects or
manifestations of one Brahman, the Supreme power.[59][60]
Ananda Coomaraswamy states that Devas and Asuras in the Vedic lore are
similar to Angels-Theoi-Gods and Titans of Greek mythology, both are
powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, the Devas
representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the
powers of Darkness in
Hindu

Hindu mythology.[61][62] According to
Coomaraswamy's interpretation of Devas and Asuras, both these natures
exist in each human being, the tyrant and the angel is within each
being, the best and the worst within each person struggles before
choices and one's own nature, and the
Hindu

Hindu formulation of Devas and
Asuras is an eternal dance between these within each person.[63][64]
The Devas and Asuras, Angels and Titans, powers of Light and powers of
Darkness in Rigveda, although distinct and opposite in operation, are
in essence consubstantial, their distinction being a matter not of
essence but of orientation, revolution or transformation. In this
case, the Titan is potentially an Angel, the Angel still by nature a
Titan; the Darkness in actu is Light, the Light in potentia Darkness;
whence the designations
Asura

Asura and Deva may be applied to one and the
same Person according to the mode of operation, as in
Rigveda

Rigveda 1.163.3,
"Trita art thou (Agni) by interior operation".
— Ananda Coomaraswamy, Journal of the American Oriental
Society[65]
Characteristics of medieval era deities[edit]
In the
Puranas

Puranas and the
Itihasas

Itihasas with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the
Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.[3][4] According to
the
Bhagavad Gita

Bhagavad Gita (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both
the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri
sampad) within each.[4][66] The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita
states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are
rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered
with a few or many faults.[4] According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita
states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various
forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to
lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy,
violence, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that
natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic
(Asura).[4][66]
Indra

Indra is a Vedic era deity, found in south and southeast Asia. Above
Indra

Indra is part of the seal of a
Thailand

Thailand state.
The Epics and medieval era texts, particularly the Puranas, developed
extensive and richly varying mythologies associated with Hindu
deities, including their genealogies.[67][68][69] Several of the
Purana texts are named after major
Hindu

Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva
and Devi.[67] Other texts and commentators such as Adi Shankara
explain that
Hindu

Hindu deities live or rule over the cosmic body as well
in the temple of human body.[33][70] They remark that the Sun deity is
the eyes, the Vāyu the nose, the
Prajapati

Prajapati the sexual organs, the
Lokapalas the ears,
Chandra
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Chandra the mind,
Mitra

Mitra the inward breath, Varuna
the outward breath,
Indra

Indra the arms, Bṛhaspati the speech, Vishnu,
whose stride is great, is the feet, and Māyā is the smile.[70]
Symbolism[edit]
Edelmann states that gods and anti-gods of
Hinduism

Hinduism are symbolism for
spiritual concepts. For example, god
Indra

Indra (a Deva) and the antigod
Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of
the self.[71] Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing
now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast,
Indra

Indra keeps
pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to
inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura
dichotomies in
Hindu

Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of
tendencies within our selves".[71]
Hindu

Hindu deities in Vedic era, states
Mahoney, are those artists with "powerfully inward transformative,
effective and creative mental powers".[72]
In
Hindu

Hindu mythology, everyone starts as an Asura, born of the same
father. "Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful
beings craving for more power, more wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled
nature, force and violence.[73][74] The "Asuras who become Devas" in
contrast are driven by an inner voice, seek understanding and meaning,
prefer moderation, principled behavior, aligned with
Ṛta

Ṛta and Dharma,
knowledge and harmony.[73][74][75]
The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also
symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual
and people, and thus Deva-
Asura

Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept
rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.[76] In the
Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras,
such as
Mahabali

Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the symbolism that
motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family
circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.[76]
Ishvara[edit]
Main article: Ishvara
Ishvara

Ishvara is, along with Shiva,
Vishnu

Vishnu and Brahma, one of the 17 deities
commonly found in Indonesian
Surya Majapahit

Surya Majapahit
Hindu

Hindu arts and records.
However,
Ishvara

Ishvara represents different concept in various Hindu
philosophies.
Another
Hindu

Hindu term that is sometimes translated as deity is Ishvara,
or alternatively various deities are described, state Sorajjakool et
al., as "the personifications of various aspects of one and the same
Ishvara".[77] The term
Ishvara

Ishvara has a wide range of meanings that
depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.[78][79][80] In ancient
texts of Indian philosophy,
Ishvara

Ishvara means supreme soul, Brahman
(Highest Reality), ruler, king or husband depending on the
context.[78] In medieval era texts,
Ishvara

Ishvara means God, Supreme Being,
personal god, or special Self depending on the school of
Hinduism.[2][80][81]
Among the six systems of
Hindu

Hindu philosophy,
Samkhya

Samkhya and
Mimamsa

Mimamsa do not
consider the concept of Ishvara, i.e., a supreme being, relevant.
Yoga, Vaisheshika,
Vedanta

Vedanta and
Nyaya

Nyaya schools of
Hinduism

Hinduism discuss
Ishvara, but assign different meanings.
Early
Nyaya

Nyaya school scholars considered the hypothesis of a deity as a
creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons and fruits; but
these early
Nyaya

Nyaya scholars then rejected this hypothesis, and were
non-theistic or atheists.[25][82] Later scholars of
Nyaya

Nyaya school
reconsidered this question and offered counter arguments for what is
Ishvara

Ishvara and various arguments to prove the existence of omniscient,
omnipresent, omnipotent deity (God).[83]
Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in 1st millennium
BC, neither required nor relied on creator deity.[84][85] Later
Vaisheshika school adopted the concept of Ishvara, states Klaus
Klostermaier, but as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with
eternal substances and atoms, but He "winds up the clock, and lets it
run its course".[84]
Ancient
Mimamsa

Mimamsa scholars of
Hinduism

Hinduism questioned what is Ishvara
(deity, God)?[86] They considered deity concept unnecessary for a
consistent philosophy and moksha (soteriology).[86][87]
In
Samkhya

Samkhya school of
Hindu

Hindu philosophy, Isvara is neither a
creator-God, nor a savior-God.[88] This is called one of the several
major atheistic schools of
Hinduism

Hinduism by some scholars.[89][90][91]
Others, such as Jacobsen, state that
Samkhya

Samkhya is more accurately
described as non-theistic.[92] Deity is considered an irrelevant
concept, neither defined nor denied, in
Samkhya

Samkhya school of Hindu
philosophy.[93]
In
Yoga

Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" (Ishta Deva or
Ishta Devata)[94] or "spiritual inspiration", but not a creator
God.[81][89] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses in
the Yogasutras can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic,
Patanjali's concept of Isvara in
Yoga

Yoga philosophy functions as a
"transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to
spiritual emancipation".[95]
The Advaita
Vedanta

Vedanta school of
Hinduism

Hinduism asserted that there is no
dualistic existence of deity (or deities).[96][97] There is no
otherness nor distinction between Jiva and Ishvara.[98][99] God
(Ishvara, Brahman) is identical with the Atman (soul) within each
human being in Advaita
Vedanta

Vedanta school,[100] and there is a monistic
Universal Absolute Oneness that connects everyone and everything,
states this school of Hinduism.[39][99][101] This school, states
Anantanand Rambachan, has "perhaps exerted the most widespread
influence".[102]
The
Dvaita

Dvaita sub-school of
Vedanta

Vedanta Hinduism, founded in medieval era,
Ishvara

Ishvara is defined as a creator God that is distinct from Jiva
(individual souls in living beings).[40] In this school, God creates
individual souls, but the individual soul never was and never will
become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by
getting infinitely close to God.[20]
Number of deities[edit]
Yantra

Yantra as aniconic deities
Sri Yantra

Sri Yantra symbolizing the goddess Tripura Sundari
Yantras or mandalas (shown) are 3-D images.[103] In Tantra, a minority
tradition in Hinduism,[104] they are considered identical with
deity.[105] Similar tantric yantras are found in
Jainism

Jainism and Buddhism
as well.[106]
Yāska, the earliest known language scholar of
India

India (~ 500 BCE),
notes Wilkins, mentions that there are three deities (Devas) according
to the Vedas, "
Agni

Agni (fire), whose place is on the earth;
Vayu

Vayu (wind),
whose place is the air; and
Surya

Surya (sun), whose place is in the
sky".[107] This principle of three worlds (or zones), and its
multiples is found thereafter in many ancient texts. The Samhitas,
which are the oldest layer of text in
Vedas

Vedas enumerate 33 devas,[note
3] either 11 each for the three worlds, or as 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8
Vasus and 2
Ashvins

Ashvins in the
Brahmanas

Brahmanas layer of Vedic texts.[7][47]
The
Rigveda

Rigveda states in hymn 1.139.11,
ये देवासो दिव्येकादश स्थ
पृथिव्यामध्येकादश स्थ ।
अप्सुक्षितो महिनैकादश
स्थ ते देवासो यज्ञमिमं
जुषध्वम् ॥११॥[111]
O ye eleven gods whose home is heaven, O ye eleven who make earth your
dwelling,
Ye who with might, eleven, live in waters, accept this sacrifice, O
gods, with pleasure.
– Translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith[112]
Gods who are eleven in heaven; who are eleven on earth;
and who are eleven dwelling with glory in mid-air; may ye be pleased
with this our sacrifice.
– Translated by HH Wilson[113]
—
Rigveda

Rigveda 1.139.11
Millions, one or one-ness[edit]
Thirty-three divinities are mentioned in other ancient texts, such as
the Yajurveda,[114] however, there is no fixed "number of deities" in
Hinduism

Hinduism any more than a standard representation of "deity".[115]
There is, however, a popular perception stating that there are 33
million(or "33 million") deities in Hinduism.[116] Most, by far, are
goddesses, state Foulston and Abbott, suggesting "how important and
popular goddesses are" in
Hindu

Hindu culture.[115] No one has a list of the
33 category goddesses and gods, but scholars state all deities are
typically viewed in
Hinduism

Hinduism as "emanations or manifestation of
genderless principle called Brahman, representing the many facets of
Ultimate Reality".[115][116][117]
This concept of
Brahman

Brahman is not the same as the monotheistic separate
God found in Abrahamic religions, where God is considered, states
Brodd, as "creator of the world, above and independent of human
existence", while in
Hinduism

Hinduism "God, the universe, human beings and all
else is essentially one thing" and everything is connected oneness,
the same god is in every human being as Atman, the eternal
Self.[117][118]
Iconography and practices[edit]
Main article: Murti
Proper
Murti

Murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts.
They describe proportions, posture, expressions among other details,
often referencing to nature.[119][120][121]
A
Hindu

Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a Murti
Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity,
Salutations to you!
I worship you per rules, kindly accept it.
May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere,
May they forgive us now, we bow to them.
—Brihat
Samhita

Samhita 59.10 - 59.11[122][123]
Hinduism

Hinduism has an ancient and extensive iconography tradition,
particularly in the form of
Murti

Murti (Sanskrit: मूर्ति, IAST:
Mūrti), or Vigraha or Pratima.[22] A
Murti

Murti is itself not the god in
Hinduism, but it is an image of god and represents emotional and
religious value.[124] A literal translation of
Murti

Murti as idol is
incorrect, states Jeaneane Fowler, when idol is understood as
superstitious end in itself.[124] Just like the photograph of a person
is not the real person, a
Murti

Murti is an image in
Hinduism

Hinduism but not the
real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of
emotional and real value to the viewer.[124] When a person worships a
Murti, it is assumed to be a manifestation of the essence or spirit of
the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are meditated
through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or
Brahman

Brahman is not
confined in it.[124]
A
Murti

Murti of a
Hindu

Hindu deity is typically made by carving stone, wood
working, metal casting or through pottery. Medieval era texts
describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include
the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas particularly the Shilpa Shastras.[21]
The expressions in a
Murti

Murti vary in diverse
Hindu

Hindu traditions, ranging
from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga,
Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and
harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images are most common in Hindu
temples.[125] Other
Murti

Murti forms found in
Hinduism

Hinduism include the
Linga.[126]
A
Murti

Murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or
Brahman

Brahman to some Hindus.[21] In religious context, they are found in
Hindu

Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest
and serve as a participant of Puja rituals in Hinduism.[127] A murti
is installed by priests, in
Hindu

Hindu temples, through the Prana
Pratishtha ceremony,[128] whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa,
the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture"
and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend.[129] In
other occasions, it serves as the center of attention in annual
festive processions and these are called
Utsava

Utsava Murti.[130]
Temple and worship[edit]
Main articles:
Hindu

Hindu temple and Puja (Hinduism)
Along with Murti, Hindus use nature and aniconic symbols for deities.
Linga-
Yoni

Yoni (left) symbolizes Shiva-Parvati,[131]
Tulsi

Tulsi plant in a
square base (center) is symbolism for Vishnu,[132] and sunrise (or
rivers) are revered as aspects of the spiritual everywhere.[133]
In Hinduism, deities and their icons may be hosted in a
Hindu

Hindu temple,
within a home or as an amulet. The worship performed by Hindus is
known by a number of regional names, such as Puja.[134] This practice
in front of a murti may be elaborate in large temples, or be a simple
song or mantra muttered in home, or offering made to sunrise or river
or symbolic anicon of a deity.[135][136][137] Archaeological evidence
of deity worship in
Hindu

Hindu temples trace Puja rituals to Gupta Empire
era (~4th century CE).[138][139] In
Hindu

Hindu temples, various pujas may
be performed daily at various times of the day; in other temples, it
may be occasional.[140][141]
The Puja practice is structured as an act of welcoming, hosting,
honoring the deity of one's choice as one's honored guest,[142] and
remembering the spiritual and emotional significance the deity
represents the devotee.[124][134] Jan Gonda, as well as Diana L. Eck,
states that a typical Puja involves one or more of 16 steps (Shodasha
Upachara) traceable to ancient times: the deity is invited as a guest,
the devotee hosts and takes care of the deity as an honored guest,
praise (hymns) with
Dhupa

Dhupa or
Aarti

Aarti along with food (Naivedhya) is
offered to the deity, after an expression of love and respect the host
takes leave, and with affection expresses good bye to the
deity.[143][144] The worship practice may also involve reflecting on
spiritual questions, with image serving as support for such
meditation.[145]
Deity worship (Bhakti), visiting temples and Puja rites are not
mandatory and is optional in Hinduism; it is the choice of a Hindu, it
may be a routine daily affair for some Hindus, periodic ritual or
infrequent for some.[146][147] Worship practices in
Hinduism

Hinduism are as
diverse as its traditions, and a
Hindu

Hindu can choose to be polytheistic,
pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or
humanist.[41]
Examples[edit]
Main articles: List of
Hindu

Hindu deities and Rigvedic deities
Major deities have inspired a vast genre of literature such as the
Puranas

Puranas and Agama texts as well their own
Hindu

Hindu traditions, but with
shared mythology, ritual grammar, theosophy, axiology and
polycentrism.[16][17]
Vishnu

Vishnu and his avatars are at the foundation of
Vaishnavism,
Shiva

Shiva for Shaivism,
Devi

Devi for Shaktism, and some Hindu
traditions such as Smarta traditions who revere multiple major deities
(five) as henotheistic manifestations of
Brahman

Brahman (absolute
metaphysical Reality).[116][148][149]
While there are diverse deities in Hinduism, states Lawrence,
"Exclusivism – which maintains that only one's own deity is real" is
rare in Hinduism.[116] Julius Lipner, and other scholars, state that
pluralism and "polycentrism" – where other deities are recognized
and revered by members of different "denominations", has been the
Hindu

Hindu ethos and way of life.[16][150]
Trimurti

Trimurti and Tridevi[edit]
Main articles:
Trimurti

Trimurti and Tridevi
A 10th century trinity – Vishnu,
Shiva

Shiva and
Brahma

Brahma – from Bihar.
The concept of Triad (or Trimurti, Trinity) makes a relatively late
appearance in
Hindu

Hindu literature, or in the second half of 1st
millennium BCE.[151] The idea of triad, playing three roles in the
cosmic affairs, is typically associated with Brahma,
Vishnu

Vishnu and Shiva
(also called Mahesh); however, this is not the only triad in Hindu
literature.[152] Other triads include Tridevi, of three goddesses –
Lakshmi,
Saraswati

Saraswati and
Kali

Kali in the text
Devi

Devi Mahatmya, in the Shakta
tradition, who further assert that
Devi

Devi is the
Brahman

Brahman (Ultimate
Reality) and it is her energy that empowers Brahma,
Vishnu

Vishnu and
Shiva.[151] The other triads, formulated as deities in ancient Indian
literature, include Sun (creator), Air (sustainer) and Fire
(destroyer); Prana (creator), Food (sustainer) and Time
(destroyer).[151] These triads, states Jan Gonda, are in some
mythologies grouped together without forming a Trinity, and in other
times represented as equal, a unity and manifestations of one
Brahman.[151] In the Puranas, for example, this idea of threefold
"hypostatization" is expressed as follows,
They [Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva] exist through each other, and uphold each
other; they are parts of one another; they subsist through one
another; they are not for a moment separated; they never abandon one
another.
—
Vayu

Vayu Purana, 5.17, Translated by Jan Gonda[151]
The triad appears in Maitrayaniya Upanishad, for the first time in
recognized roles known ever since, where they are deployed to present
the concept of three
Guṇa

Guṇa – the innate nature, tendencies and
inner forces found within every being and everything, whose balance
transform and keeps changing the individual and the world.[152][153]
It is in the medieval Puranic texts,
Trimurti

Trimurti concepts appears in
various context, from rituals to spiritual concepts.[151] The Bhagavad
Gita, in verses 9.18, 10.21-23 and 11.15, asserts that the triad or
trinity is manifestation of one Brahman, which
Krishna

Krishna affirms himself
to be.[154] However, suggests Bailey, the mythology of triad is "not
the influence nor the most important one" in
Hindu

Hindu traditions, rather
the ideologies and spiritual concepts develop on their own
foundations.[152]
Avatars of
Hindu

Hindu deities[edit]
The ten avatars of Vishnu, (Clockwise, from top left) Matsya, Kurma,
Varaha, Vamana, Krishna, Kalki, Buddha, Parshurama,
Rama

Rama and
Narasimha, (in centre)
Radha

Radha and Krishna. Painting currently in
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Main articles:
Avatar

Avatar and Dashavatara
Hindu

Hindu mythology has nurtured the concept of Avatar, which represents
the descent of a deity on earth.[155][156] This concept is commonly
translated as "incarnation",[155] and is an "appearance" or
"manifestation".[157][158]
The concept of
Avatar

Avatar is most developed in
Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism tradition, and
associated with Vishnu, particularly with
Rama

Rama and Krishna.[159][160]
Vishnu

Vishnu takes numerous avatars in
Hindu

Hindu mythology. He becomes female,
during the Samudra manthan, in the form of Mohini, to resolve a
conflict between the Devas and Asuras. His male avatars include
Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna,
Buddha, and Kalki.[160] Various texts, particularly the Bhagavad Gita,
discuss the idea of
Avatar

Avatar of
Vishnu

Vishnu appearing to restore the cosmic
balance whenever the power of evil becomes excessive and causes
persistent oppression in the world.[156]
In
Shaktism

Shaktism traditions, the concept appears in its legends as the
various manifestations of Devi, the Divine Mother principal in
Hinduism.[161] The avatars of
Devi

Devi or
Parvati

Parvati include
Durga
.jpg/440px-Shrinika_performing_Abhinaya_(Kede_Chhanda_Janilu_Tuhi).jpg)
Durga and Kali,
who are particularly revered in eastern states of India, as well as
Tantra traditions.[162][163][164] Twenty one avatars of
Shiva

Shiva are also
described in
Shaivism

Shaivism texts, but unlike Vaishnava traditions, Shaiva
traditions have focussed directly on
Shiva

Shiva rather than the Avatar
concept.[155]
Major regional and pan-Indian
Hindu

Hindu deities[edit]
Name
Other Names
Avatārs or Associated Deities
Geography
Image
Early illustrative art
Vishnu
Nārāyana,
Venkateshwara, Jagannatha
Matsya, Kurma, Varāha, Nṛsimha, Vāmana, Parashurāma, Rāma,
Kṛshna, Kalki, Vithoba, Gopāl, Naraenten (那羅延天, Japan)
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
2nd-century BCE
Shiva
Mahādeva, Pashupati,
Tripurantaka, Vishwanatha,
Dakshinamurthy, Kālāntaka,
Bhairava
Achalanatha(Japan)[165][166]
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
1st-century BCE[167]
Brahmā
Prajāpati
Bonten

Bonten (Japan)[168],
Phra Phrom
.jpg/440px-Wat_Yannawa_-_007_Brahma_(12130018383).jpg)
Phra Phrom (Thailand)
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
6th-century CE
Ganesha
Ganapati, Vināyaka, Lambodara, Gajānana
Kangiten

Kangiten (Japan)
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
7th-century CE
Hanuman
Maruti,Pavanputra,
Kesarinandan,Ananjeya
Mahavir (Bhutan),(Sri lanka),
(Nepal)
Kārtikeya
Skanda, Murugan
pan-India, Sri Lanka
8th-century CE
Pārvati
Uma, Devi, Gauri,
Durga, Kāli, Annapurna
Umahi (烏摩妃, Japan)
Dewi Sri (Indonesia)[169]
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
5th-century CE
Lakshmi
Sri Devi, Gajalakshmi, Kamalāsanā
Sita, Rādhā,
Kisshōten

Kisshōten (Japan)
Nang Kwak

Nang Kwak (Thailand)[170]
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
1st-century BCE
Saraswati
Vāgishvari, Vīnāpāni
Benzaiten

Benzaiten (Japan),
Biàncáitiān (China),
Thurathadi (Myanmar),
Suratsawadi (Thailand)[171]
pan-Indian, Nepal, Java, Bali, Sri Lanka
10th-century CE
Durgā
Pārvati, Kāli, Mahishāsuramardini
Betari
Durga
.jpg/440px-Shrinika_performing_Abhinaya_(Kede_Chhanda_Janilu_Tuhi).jpg)
Durga (Indonesia)[172]
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
8th-century CE
Kāli
Durga, Parvati
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
12th-century CE
Mariamman
Durga, Parvati
South India,
Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka
Ardhanārīshvara (Half
Shiva

Shiva - Half Parvati)
pan-Indian, Nepal, Sri Lanka
1st-century CE
See also[edit]
Hindu

Hindu denominations
Hindu

Hindu iconography
Hindu

Hindu mythology
Puranas
List of
Hindu

Hindu deities
Rigvedic deities
Notes[edit]
^ For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and
in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see:
Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492 and Renou 1964, p. 55
^ [a] Hark, Lisa; DeLisser, Horace (2011). Achieving Cultural
Competency. John Wiley & Sons. Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and
Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are
worshipped as incarnations of Brahman.
[b] Toropov & Buckles 2011: The members of various
Hindu

Hindu sects
worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable
rites in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however,
its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as
expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are
understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality.
[d] Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff (2007). An Introductory
Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press. While
Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that
they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is
the source and ruler of the devas.
^ The list of Vedic Devas somewhat varies across the manuscripts found
in different parts of South Asia, particularly in terms of guides
(Aswins) and personified Devas. One list based on Book 2 of Aitereya
Brahmana

Brahmana is:[108][109]
Devas personified:
Indra

Indra (Śakra), Varuṇa, Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga,
Aṃśa, Vidhatr (Brahma),[110] Tvāṣṭṛ, Pūṣan, Vivasvat,
Savitṛ (Dhatr), Vishnu.
Devas as abstractions or inner principles: Ānanda (bliss, inner
contentment), Vijñāna (knowledge), Manas (mind, thought), Prāṇa
(life-force), Vāc (speech), Ātmā (soul, self within each person),
and five manifestations of Rudra/
Shiva

Shiva – Īśāna, Tatpuruṣa,
Aghora, Vāmadeva, Sadyojāta
Devas as forces or principles of nature – Pṛthivī (earth), Agni
(fire), Antarikṣa (atmosphere, space), Jal (water), Vāyu (wind),
Dyauṣ (sky), Sūrya (sun), Nakṣatra (stars), Soma (moon)
Devas as guide or creative energy – Vasatkara, Prajāpati
References[edit]
^ Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in
Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 37-39, 401-403, 498-503
^ a b Mircea Eliade (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton
University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, pages 73-76
^ a b c Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and
Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76
^ a b c d e f Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex
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^ Renou 1964, p. 55
^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical
Samkhya

Samkhya and
Yoga

Yoga - An Indian
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Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and
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Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover,
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^ a b George Williams (2008), A Handbook of
Hindu

Hindu Mythology, Oxford
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^ Sanjukta Gupta (2013), Lakṣmī Tantra: A Pāñcarātra Text,
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^ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in
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^ Ellen Goldberg (2002), The Lord who is half woman: Ardhanārīśvara
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^ TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of
Hindu

Hindu iconography, Vol 2,
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^ Fred Kleiner (2012), Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global
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^ Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and
Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff),
Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0814658567, pages 562-563
^ a b c
Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and
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Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries
between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199738724,
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Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis - Department of Religious
Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State
University, pages 18-35
^ Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge,
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^ a b Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter,
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^ a b c
Klaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, State
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^ a b "pratima (Hinduism)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21
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^ PK Acharya, An Encyclopedia of
Hindu

Hindu Architecture, Oxford University
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^ VV Raman (2012),
Hinduism

Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon -
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explicitly atheistic schools in the
Hindu

Hindu tradition. One virulently
anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called
Charvaka school."
^ a b John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in
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^ A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern
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R Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Harvard University
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^ Naidoo, Thillayvel (1982). The
Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj Movement in South Africa.
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^ Glyn Richards (1990), The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia
(Editor: Friedhelm Hardy), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415058155, pages
173-176
^ John E. Cort (1998), Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures
in Indian History, State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791437865, pages 218-220
^ a b Hajime Nakamura (1998), A Comparative History of Ideas, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120810044, pages 26-33
^ Ellen London (2008),
Thailand

Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History
& Culture, Marshall Cavendish, ISBN 978-9812615206, page 74
^ Trudy Ring et al (1996), International Dictionary of Historic
Places: Asia and Oceania, Routledge, ISBN 978-1884964046, page
692
^ a b Jean Holm and John Bowker (1998), Sacred Place, Bloomsbury
Academic, ISBN 978-0826453037, pages 76-78
^ Michael Coogan (2003), The Illustrated Guide to World Religions,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195219975, page 149
^
Alain Daniélou

Alain Daniélou (2001), The
Hindu

Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism,
ISBN 978-0892818549, pages 82-83
^
Patrick Olivelle (1992), The Samnyasa Upanisads, Oxford University
Press, ISBN 978-0195070453, pages 147-148 with footnotes 2 and 5
^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's
Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
^ Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 20–37
^ a b John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of
Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge,
ISBN 978-0415782944, pages 99-107
^ a b R
Prasad
.jpg/440px-Khichdi_Prasadam_in_Donna_(Iskcon_Bangalore).jpg)
Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical
Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing,
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^ a b
Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and
Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, page
8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense
described to be accepted as a
Hindu

Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself
perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic,
monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and
still be considered a Hindu."
^ Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict,
ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008
^ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hindu, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan
Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in
God and still call himself a Hindu."
^ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary"
Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European
Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 496
^ John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses
of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814912, page 2
^ William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the
Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791435809, page 18
^ a b Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary"
Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European
Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 492
^ Deva Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper (2015)
^ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal
Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102
^ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary"
Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European
Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121
^ Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South
Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages
23-29
^ Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism,
Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67
^ George Williams (2008), A Handbook of
Hindu

Hindu Mythology, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0195332612, pages 24-33
^ Bina Gupta (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Routledge,
ISBN 978-0415800037, pages 21-25
^ Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University
Press, ISBN 978-0691019307, pages 338-339
^ M Chakravarti (1995), The concept of Rudra-Śiva through the ages,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800533, pages 59-65
^ David Kinsley (2005),
Hindu

Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine
in the
Hindu

Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press,
ISBN 978-8120803947, pages 6-17, 55-64
^ a b David Kinsley (2005),
Hindu

Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine
Feminine in the
Hindu

Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-8120803947, pages 18, 19
^ Christopher John Fuller (2004), The
Camphor

Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism
and Society in India, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 978-0691120485, page 41
^ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal
Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 20
^ Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic
Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages
373-374
^ Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic
Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages
373-418
^ Nicholas Gier (1995),
Hindu

Hindu Titanism, Philosophy East and West,
Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76, see also 73-96
^ Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic
Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages
373-374
^ a b Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita:
Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York
Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629
^ a b Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21
^ Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver
Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 437-439
^ Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of
Hinduism

Hinduism (Editor: Arvind
Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press,
ISBN 978-1570034497, page 139
^ a b
Alain Daniélou

Alain Daniélou (1991), The Myths and Gods of India,
Princeton/Bollingen Paperbacks, ISBN 978-0892813544, pages 57-60
^ a b Jonathan Edelmann (2013),
Hindu

Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent,
Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages
439-441
^ William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the
Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791435809, pages 17, 27, 32
^ a b Nicholas Gier (1995),
Hindu

Hindu Titanism, Philosophy East and West,
Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76-80
^ a b Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The
Hindu

Hindu Temple,
Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802230, pages 75-78
^ William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the
Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791435809, pages 50, 72-73
^ a b Jonathan Edelmann (2013),
Hindu

Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent,
Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages
440-442
^ Siroj Sorajjakool, Mark Carr and Julius Nam (2009), World Religions,
Routledge, ISBN 978-0789038135, page 38
^ a b Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionary, Izvara, Sanskrit
Digital Lexicon, University of Cologne, Germany
^ James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1,
page 306
^ a b Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in
Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812932, pages
177-184, 208-215
^ a b Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the
Yoga

Yoga Darsana, State University
of New York press, ISBN 978-0791438152, pages 82-86
^ G Oberhammer (1965), Zum problem des Gottesbeweises in der Indischen
Philosophie, Numen, 12: 1-34
^ Francis X. Clooney (2010),
Hindu

Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason
Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 18-19, 35-39
^ a b
Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition,
State University of New York, ISBN 978-0791470824, page 337
^ A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern
science, Sterling, ISBN 978-0865902787, pages 149-151
^ a b FX Clooney (1997), What's a god? The quest for the right
understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṅical ritual theory
(Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of
Hindu

Hindu Studies, August 1997,
Volume 1, Issue 2, pages 337-385
^ P. Bilimoria (2001),
Hindu

Hindu doubts about God: Towards Mimamsa
Deconstruction, in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy (Editor:
Roy Perrett), Volume 4, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-8153-3611-2, pages
87-106
^ A Malinar (2014), Current Approaches: Articles on Key Themes, in The
Bloomsbury Companion to
Hindu

Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier),
Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1472511515, page 79
^ a b Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory
and Practice of
Yoga

Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 38-39
^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical
Samkhya

Samkhya and
Yoga

Yoga - An Indian
Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page
39
^ Richard Garbe (2013), Die Samkhya-Philosophie, Indische Philosophie
Volume 11, ISBN 978-1484030615, pages 25-27 (in German)
^ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in
Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 15-16
^ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in
Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 76-77
^ Orlando Espín and James Nickoloff (2007), An Introductory
Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies, Liturgical Press,
ISBN 978-0814658567, page 651
^ Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the
Yoga

Yoga Darsana: A
Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791438152, page 86
^ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in
Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120832329, page 77
^ JN Mohanty (2001), Explorations in Philosophy, Vol 1 (Editor: Bina
Gupta), Oxford University Press, page 107-108
^ Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie
Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor:
L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101-109 (in
German), also pages 69-99
^ a b William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812512, page 5
^ William James (1985), The Varieties of Religious Experience, Harvard
University Press, ISBN 978-0674932258, page 404 with footnote 28
^ Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical
Advaita, in Living Liberation in
Hindu

Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O.
Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791427064, pages 38-39, 59 (footnote 105)
^ Anantanand Rambachan (2012), Advaita Worldview, The: God, World, and
Humanity, State University of New York Press,
ISBN 978-0791468524, pages 1-2
^
Alain Daniélou

Alain Daniélou (1991), The Myths and Gods of India,
Princeton/Bollingen Paperbacks, ISBN 978-0892813544, pages
350-354
^ Serenity Young (2001), Hinduism, Marshall Cavendish,
ISBN 978-0761421160, page 73
^ David R Kinsley (1995), Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The
Ten Mahāvidyās, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800533, pages
136-140, 122-128
^ RT Vyas and Umakant Shah, Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and
Allied Subjects, Abhinav, ISBN 978-8170173168, pages 23-26
^ WJ Wilkins (2003),
Hindu

Hindu Gods and Goddesses, Dover,
ISBN 978-0486431567, pages 9-10
^ Hermann Oldenberg (1988), The Religion of the Veda, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803923, pages 23-50
^ AA MacDonell, Vedic mythology, p. PA19, at Google Books, Oxford
University Press, pages 19-21
^ Francis X Clooney (2010), Divine Mother, Blessed Mother, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0199738731, page 242
^ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १.१३९ Sanskrit,
Wikisource
^ The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 139 Verse 11, Ralph T. H. Griffith,
Wikisource
^ The
Rig Veda

Rig Veda
Samhita

Samhita Verse 11, HH Wilson (Translator), Royal Asiatic
Society, WH Allen & Co, London
^ See White
Yajurveda

Yajurveda verses 20.11 and 20.36, for example: Ralph
Griffith, The texts of the white
Yajurveda

Yajurveda EJ Lazarus, pages 187, also
190, 132-135, 241
^ a b c Lynn Foulston, Stuart Abbott (2009).
Hindu

Hindu goddesses: beliefs
and practices. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 1–3, 40–41.
ISBN 9781902210438.
^ a b c d David Lawrence (2012), The Routledge Companion to Theism
(Editors: Charles Taliaferro, Victoria S. Harrison and Stewart Goetz),
Routledge, ISBN 978-0415881647, pages 78-79
^ a b Jeffrey Brodd (2003), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery,
Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884897255, page 43
^ Christopher John Fuller (2004), The
Camphor

Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism
and Society in India, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 978-0691120485, pages 30-31, Quote: "Crucial in Hindu
polytheism is the relationship between the deities and humanity.
Unlike Jewish, Christian and Islamic monotheism, predicated on the
otherness of God and either his total separation from man and his
singular incarnation,
Hinduism

Hinduism postulates no absolute distinction
between deities and human beings. The idea that all deities are truly
one is, moreover, easily extended to proclaim that all human beings
are in reality also forms of one supreme deity - Brahman, the Absolute
of philosophical Hinduism. In practice, this abstract monist doctrine
rarely belongs to an ordinary Hindu's statements, but examples of
permeability between the divine and human can be easily found in
popular
Hinduism

Hinduism in many unremarkable contexts".
^ Abanindranth Tagore, Some notes on Indian Artistic Anatomy, pages
1-21
^ Stella Kramrisch (1958), Traditions of the Indian Craftsman, The
Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, pages 224-230
^ John Cort (2011), Jains in the World, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 978-0199796649, pages 20-21, 56-58
^ Brihat
Samhita

Samhita of
Varaha

Varaha Mihira, PVS Sastri and VMR Bhat
(Translators), Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass
(ISBN 978-8120810600), page 520
^ Sanskrit: (Source), pages 142-143 (note that the verse number in
this version is 58.10-11)
^ a b c d e Jeaneane D Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices,
Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723608, pages 41-45
^ Gopinath Rao, Elements of
Hindu

Hindu Iconography Madras, Cornell
University Archives, pages 17-39
^ Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University
Press, ISBN 978-0691019307, pages 179-187
^ Michael Willis (2009), The Archaeology of
Hindu

Hindu Ritual, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0521518741, pages 96-112, 123-143,
168-172
^ Heather Elgood (2000),
Hinduism

Hinduism and the Religious Arts, Bloomsbury
Academic, ISBN 978-0304707393, pages 14-15, 32-36
^ Harold Coward and David Goa (2008), Mantra : 'Hearing the
Divine In
India

India and America, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120832619, pages 25-30
^ James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism:
A-M, The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4, page 726
^ Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University
Press, ISBN 978-0691019307, pages 243-249
^ Scott Littleton (2005), Gods, Goddesses, And Mythology, Volume 11,
Marshall Cavendish, ISBN 978-0761475590, page 1125
^ Mukul Goel (2008), Devotional Hinduism: Creating Impressions for
God, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0595505241, page 77
^ a b James Lochtefeld (2002), Puja in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Hinduism, Volume 2, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-823922871, pages
529–530
^ Flood, Gavin D. (2002). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.
Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6.
^ Paul Courtright (1985), in Gods of Flesh/Gods of Stone (Joanne Punzo
Waghorne, Norman Cutler, and Vasudha Narayanan, eds),
ISBN 978-0231107778, Columbia University Press, see Chapter 2
^ Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Gale Encyclopedia of Religion. 11.
Thompson Gale. pp. 7493–7495. ISBN 0-02-865980-5.
^ Willis, Michael D. (2009). "2: 6". The Archaeology of
Hindu

Hindu Ritual.
Cambridge University Press.
^ Willis, Michael D. (2008). The Formation of Temple Ritual in the
Gupta Period: pūjā and pañcamahāyajña. Gerd Mevissen.
^ Puja, Encyclopædia Britannica (2011)
^ Hiro G. Badlani (2008), Hinduism: A path of ancient wisdom,
ISBN 978-0595436361, pages 315-318
^ Paul Thieme (1984), "Indische Wörter und Sitten," in Kleine
Schriften, Vol. 2, pages 343–370
^ Fuller, C. J. (2004), The
Camphor

Camphor Flame: Popular
Hinduism

Hinduism and
Society in India, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
pp. 66–73, 308, ISBN 978-069112048-5
^
Diana L. Eck (2008), Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832664, pages 47-49
^
Diana L. Eck (2008), Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832664, pages 45-46
^ Jonathan Lee and Kathleen Nadeau (2010), Encyclopedia of Asian
American Folklore and Folklife, Volume 1, ABC,
ISBN 978-0313350665, pages 480-481
^ Jean Holm and John Bowker (1998), Worship, Bloomsbury Academic,
ISBN 978-1855671119, page 83, Quote: "Temples are the permanent
residence of a deity and daily worship is performed by the priest, but
the majority of Hindus visit temples only on special occasions.
Worship in temples is wholly optional for them".
^ Guy Beck (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular
Variations on a
Hindu

Hindu Deity, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791464151,
pages 1-2
^ Editors of
Hinduism

Hinduism Today, Editors of
Hinduism

Hinduism Today. "What is
Hinduism?". Himalayan Academy Publications. Retrieved 16 October
2011. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
^ Andrew J Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and
Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press,
ISBN 978-0231149877, pages 167-168
^ a b c d e f
Jan Gonda (1969), The
Hindu

Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, 63/64,
1/2, pages 212-226
^ a b c GM Bailey (1979), Trifunctional Elements in the
Mythology

Mythology of
the
Hindu

Hindu Trimūrti, Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2, pages 152-163
^ James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 9780823931798, page
265
^ Rudolf V D'Souza (1996), The Bhagavadgītā and St. John of the
Cross, Gregorian University, ISBN 978-8876526992, pages 340-342
^ a b c James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Hinduism: A-M, The Rosen Publishing Group,
ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4, pages 72-73
^ a b Sheth, Noel (Jan 2002). "
Hindu

Hindu Avatāra and Christian
Incarnation: A Comparison". Philosophy East and West. University of
Hawai'i Press. 52 (1 (Jan. 2002)): 98–125.
doi:10.1353/pew.2002.0005. JSTOR 1400135.
^ Matchett, Freda (2001). Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: the relationship
between
Krishna

Krishna and Vishnu. 9780700712816. p. 4.
ISBN 978-0-7007-1281-6.
^ Christopher Hugh Partridge, Introduction to World Religions, pg. 148
^ Kinsley, David (2005). Lindsay Jones, ed. Gale's Encyclopedia of
Religion. 2 (Second ed.). Thomson Gale. pp. 707–708.
ISBN 0-02-865735-7.
^ a b Bryant, Edwin Francis (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford
University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6.
^ Hawley, John Stratton; Vasudha Narayanan (2006). The life of
Hinduism. University of California Press. p. 174.
ISBN 978-0-520-24914-1.
^ David Kinsley (1988),
Hindu

Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine
in the
Hindu

Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press,
ISBN 0-520063392, pages 45-48, 96-97
^ Sally Kempton (2013), Awakening Shakti: The Transformative Power of
the Goddesses of Yoga, ISBN 978-1604078916, pages 165-167
^ Eva Rudy Jansen, The Book of
Hindu

Hindu Imagery: Gods, Manifestations and
Their Meaning, Holland: Binkey Kok, ISBN 978-9074597074, pages
133-134, 41
^ Jiro Takei and Marc P Keane (2001), SAKUTEIKI, Tuttle,
ISBN 978-0804832946, page 101
^ Miyeko Murase (1975), Japanese Art: Selections from the Mary and
Jackson Burke Collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York),
ISBN 978-0870991363, page 31
^ M Chakravarti (1995), The concept of Rudra-Śiva through the ages,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800533, pages 148-149
^ Robert Paine and Alexander Soper (1992), The Art and Architecture of
Japan, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0300053333, page 60
^ Joe Cribb (1999), Magic Coins of Java, Bali and the Malay Peninsula,
British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0714108810, page 77
^ Jonathan Lee, Fumitaka Matsuoka et al (2015), Asian American
Religious Cultures, ABC, ISBN 978-1598843309, page 892
^ Kinsley, David (1988),
Hindu

Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine
Feminine in the
Hindu

Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 0-520-06339-2, pages 94-97
^ Francine Brinkgreve (1997), Offerings to
Durga
.jpg/440px-Shrinika_performing_Abhinaya_(Kede_Chhanda_Janilu_Tuhi).jpg)
Durga and Pretiwi in Bali,
Asian Folklore Studies Vol. 56, No. 2, pages 227-251
Sources[edit]
Daniélou, Alain (1991) [1964]. The myths and gods of India. Inner
Traditions, Vermont, USA. ISBN 0-89281-354-7.
Fuller, C. J. (2004). The
Camphor

Camphor Flame: Popular
Hinduism

Hinduism and Society
in India. Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
ISBN 0-691-12048-X.
Harman, William, "
Hindu

Hindu Devotion". In: Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual,
Culture, and Practice, Robin Rinehard, ed. (2004)
ISBN 1-57607-905-8.
Kashyap, R.L. Essentials of
Krishna

Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda; SAKSI,
Bangalore, Karnataka ISBN 81-7994-032-2.
Keay, John (2000). India, a History. New York, United States: Harper
Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-638784-5.
Pattanaik, Devdutt (2009). 7 Secrets from
Hindu

Hindu Calendar Art.
Westland, India. ISBN 978-81-89975-67-8.
Monier-Williams, Monier (1974), Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious
Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books
of the Hindus, Elibron Classics, Adamant Media Corporation,
ISBN 1-4212-6531-1, retrieved 8 July 2007
Monier-Williams, Monier (2001) [first published 1872], English
Sanskrit

Sanskrit dictionary, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 81-206-1509-3, retrieved 24 July 2007
Renou, Louis (1964), The Nature of Hinduism, Walker
Toropov, Brandon; Buckles, Luke (2011), Guide to World Religions,
Penguin
Swami

Swami Bhaskarananda, (1994). Essentials of Hinduism. (Viveka Press)
ISBN 1-884852-02-5.
Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of
Hindu

Hindu Temple architecture and
Vastu. S.K.Ramachandara Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal
Chharia Oriental series) ISBN 978-93-81218-51-8 (Set)
Werner, Karel A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. (Curzon Press 1994)
ISBN 0-7007-0279-2.
Further reading[edit]
Chandra, Suresh (1998). Encyclopaedia of
Hindu

Hindu Gods and Goddesses.
Sarup & Sons, New Delhi, India. ISBN 81-7625-039-2.
Pattanaik, Devdutt (2003). Indian mythology: tales, symbols, and
rituals from the heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions / Bear
& Company. ISBN 0-89281-870-0.
Kinsley, David.
Hindu

Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the
Hindu

Hindu Religious Traditions. Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, India.
ISBN 81-208-0379-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
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