Hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

Background

, with its 1.2 billion followers, makes up about 15-16 % of the world's population and as such the culture that ensues it is full of different aspects of life that are effected by art. There are 64 traditional arts that are followed that start with the classics of music and range all the way to the application and adornment of jewellery. Since religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism recurring symbols such as the gods and their reincarnations, the lotus flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances in many sculptures, paintings, music, and dance.

History

Earliest depictions of Hindu deities (3rd-2nd centuries BCE)

It is thought that before the adoption of stone sculpture, there was an older tradition of using clay or wood to represent Indian deities, which, because of their inherent fragility, have not survived. There are no remains of such representations, but an indirect testimony appears in the some punch-marked coins of the

Mauryan Empire The Maurya Empire, or the Mauryan Empire, was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in the Indian subcontinent based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until ...

, as well as the coinage of the

Indo-Greek The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent ( ...

king

Agathocles Agathocles ( Greek: ) is a Greek name, the most famous of which is Agathocles of Syracuse, the tyrant of Syracuse. The name is derived from , ''agathos'', i.e. "good" and , ''kleos'', i.e. "glory". Other personalities named Agathocles: *Agathocles ...

, who issued coins with the image of Indian deities, together with legends in the Brami script, circa 180-190 BCE. The deity illustrated in some of the

punch-marked coins Punch-marked coins, also known as ''Aahat coins'', are a type of early coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BC. It was of irregular shape. History The study of the relative chronology of these coins has successfu ...

of the 3rd century BCE is now generally thought to be

Balarama Balarama ( Sanskrit: बलराम, IAST: ''Balarāma'') is a Hindu god and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Bala ...

, with his attributes: a plough in his raised left hand and pestle in his raised right hand. Also among the first known illustrations of Hindu deities appear on Hellenistic coinage, as witnesses by the Indo-Greeks in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, and they are generally identified as

- Samkarshana and Vasudeva-Krishna, together with their attributes, especially the Gada mace and the

plow A plough or plow ( US; both ) is a farm tool for loosening or turning the soil before sowing seed or planting. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by oxen and horses, but in modern farms are drawn by tractors. A plough may have a wooden, iron or ...

for the former, and the

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...

attributes of the

Shankha A Shankha ( conch shell) has religious ritual importance in Hinduism. It is the shell of any suitable sea snail which had a hole made for the performer's embouchure. In Hindu history, the shankha is a sacred emblem of The Hindu preserver god ...

(a pear-shaped case or conch) and the

Sudarshana Chakra Sudarshana Chakra (Sanskrit: सुदर्शन चक्र, lit. "disc of auspicious vision", IAST: Sudarśana Chakra) is a spinning, celestial discus with 108 serrated edges, attributed to Vishnu and Krishna in the Hindu scriptures. The Su ...

wheel for the latter.

Osmund Bopearachchi Osmund Bopearachchi (born 1949) is a Sri Lankan historian and numismatist who has specialized notably standardized the coinage of the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms. He is currently Emeritus Director of the CNRS at the École Normale Sup ...

, 2016
Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence
/ref> According to Bopearachchi, the headdress is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top (

chattra The ''chhatra'' (from sa, छत्र, meaning "umbrella") "jewelled/precious parasol" is an auspicious symbol in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The ''chhatra'' in various traditions According to Hindu mythology, it is the emblem of Varuna, ...

), as seen in later statues of

Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...

s in

Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...

. It is therefore thought that images, predating the coins but now lost, served as models to the engravers. The dancing girls on some of the coins of Agathocles and

Pantaleon Pantaleon, also known as Panteleimon, (Greek: ) was a Greek king who reigned some time between 190–180 BC in Bactria and India. He was a younger contemporary or successor of the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius, and is sometimes believed to ha ...

are also sometimes considered as representations of

Lakshmi Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with '' Maya'' ("Illusion"). A ...

, the consort of Vishnu, but also a Goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, or

Subhadra Subhadra ( sa, सुभद्रा, Subhadrā) is a Hindu goddess mentioned in ancient Hindu scriptures like the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Bhagavata Purana''. She is described as the favourite child of Vasudeva and the younger sister of d ...

, the sister of

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...

and

Early reliefs (1st century BCE)

By 100 BCE in the art of Mathura, reliefs start to represent more complex scenes, defining, according to Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, an age of "iconic diversification and narrative maturation". Some reliefs, such as the "Katra architrave", possibly representing

Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests ( purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers ( ...

s and the cult of the

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...

Linga A lingam ( sa, लिङ्ग , lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism. It is typically the primary ''murti'' or devotional ...

. These reliefs from

are dated to circa 100 BCE. These examples of narrative reliefs, although few remain, are as refined and intricate as the better known Buddhist narrative reliefs of

Bharhut Bharhut is a village located in the Satna district of Madhya Pradesh, central India. It is known for its famous relics from a Buddhist stupa. What makes Bharhut panels unique is that each panel is explicitly labelled in Brahmi characters mentioni ...

Sanchi Sanchi is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located, about 23 kilometres from Raisen town, district headquarter and north-east of Bh ...

Amaravati Amaravati () is the capital of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is located on the banks of the river Krishna in Guntur district. The Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone at a ceremonial event in Uddandara ...

Hindu art under the Kushans (2nd-3rd century CE)

Chaturvuyha Sankarshan Vasudeva 2nd century CE, Mathura Museum

Hindu art started to develop fully from the 1st to the 2nd century CE, and there are only very few examples of artistic representation before that time. Hindu art found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. The three Vedic gods

Indra Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...

Brahma Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp ...

and

Surya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a ...

were actually first depicted in Buddhist sculpture, as attendants in scenes commemorating the life of the Buddha, such as his Birth, his Descent from the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, or his retreat in the Indrasala Cave. During the time of the Kushans, Hindu art progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art. The differences appear in iconography rather than in style. It is generally considered that it is in Mathura, during the time of the Kushans, that the Brahmanical deities were given their standard form: Some sculptures during this period suggest that the concept of the

avatar Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appear ...

s was starting to emerge, as images of ''" Chatur-vyuha"'' (the four emanations of

) are appearing. The famous "Caturvyūha Viṣṇu" statue in Mathura Museum is an attempt to show in one composition

Vāsudeva Vāsudeva ( sa, वासुदेव, ), later incorporated as Vāsudeva-Krishna (, " Krishna, son of Vasudeva"),"While the earliest piece of evidence do not yet use the name Krsna...." in Krishna-Vāsudeva or simply Krishna, was the son of ...

(avatar of

) together with the other members of the

Vrishni clan The Vrishni heroes (IAST: Vṛṣṇi Viras), also referred to as ''Pancha-viras'' (IAST: Pañca vīras, "Five heroes"), are a group of five legendary, deified heroes who are found in the literature and archaeological sites of ancient India. The ...

of the

Pancharatra ''Pancharatra'' ( IAST: ''Pāñcarātra'') was a religious movement in Hinduism that originated in late 3rd-century BCE around the ideas of Narayana and the various avatars of Vishnu as their central deities.Samkarsana,

Pradyumna Pradyumna ( sa, प्रद्युम्न) is the eldest son of the Hindu deities Krishna and his chief consort, Rukmini. He is considered to be one of the four vyuha avatars of Vishnu. According to the Bhagavata Purana, Pradyumna was ...

and

Aniruddha Aniruddha ( sa, अनिरुद्ध ') is a character in Hindu mythology, the son of Pradyumna and Rukmavati, and the grandson of Krishna and Rukmini. He is said to have been very much like his grandfather, to the extent that he i ...

, with

Samba Samba (), also known as samba urbano carioca (''urban Carioca samba'') or simply samba carioca (''Carioca samba''), is a Brazilian music genre that originated in the Afro-Brazilian communities of Rio de Janeiro in the early 20th century. Havi ...

missing, Vāsudeva being the central deity from whom the others emanate. The back of the relief is carved with the branches of a

Kadamba tree ''Neolamarckia cadamba'', with English common names burflower-tree, laran, and Leichhardt pine, and called kadam or cadamba locally, is an evergreen, tropical tree native to South and Southeast Asia. The genus name honours French naturalist Jean- ...

, symbolically showing the relationship being the different deities. The depiction of Vishnu was stylistically derived from the type of the ornate Bodhisattvas, with rich jewelry and ornate headdress. File:Surya - Kushan Period - Kankali Mound - ACCN 12-269 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5839.JPG, Sun God

, also revered in Buddhism, Kushan Period Shiva Linga worshipped by Kushan devotees Mathura circa 2nd century CE.jpg,

worshipped by Indo-Scythian, or Kushan devotees, 2nd century CE. File:Karttikeya and Agni - Circa 1st Century CE - Katra Keshav Dev - ACCN 40-2883 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5717.JPG, War God

Karttikeya Kartikeya ( sa, कार्त्तिकेय, Kārttikeya), also known as Skanda, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha (), and Murugan ( ta, முருகன்), is the Hindu god of war. He is the son of Parvati and Shiva, the brother of Ganesha ...

and Fire God

Agni Agni (English: , sa, अग्नि, translit=Agni) is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism. He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hi ...

, Kushan Period, 1st century CE File:The Hindu God Shiva LACMA M.69.15.1 (3 of 3).jpg, The Hindu God Shiva, 3rd century CE. Mathura or Ahichchhatra. File:Standing Goddess Sashti Between Two Warriors Skanda and Visakha - Circa 2nd Century CE - ACCN 00-F-13 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5789.JPG, Kushan-era image of Shashthi between Skanda and Vishakha, c. 2nd century CE File:CoinOfHuvishkaWithOisho.JPG, Three-faced

Oesho Oesho ( xbc, Οηϸο) is a deity found on coins of 2nd to 6th-century, particularly the 2nd-century Kushan era. He was apparently one of the titular deities of the Kushan dynasty. Oesho is an early Kushan deity that is regarded as an amalgamation ...

, often identified with

, on a coin of

Huvishka Huvishka (Kushan: Οοηϸκι, ''Ooēški'', Brahmi: ', '; Kharosthi: 𐨱𐨂𐨬𐨅𐨮𐨿𐨐 ', ') was the emperor of the Kushan Empire from the death of Kanishka (assumed on the best evidence available to be in 150 CE) until the successio ...

Hindu art under the Guptas (4th-6th century CE)

The first known creation of the Guptas relate to Hindu art at Mathura is an inscribed pillar recording the installation of two

s in 380 CE under

Chandragupta II Chandragupta II (r.c. 376-415), also known by his title Vikramaditya, as well as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, was the third ruler of the Gupta Empire in India, and was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta dynasty. Chandragupta continue ...

, Samudragupta's successor.

Development of the iconography of Vishnu

Until the 4th century CE, the worship of Vāsudeva-Krishna seems to have been much more important than that of Vishnu. With the Gupta period, statues focusing on the worship of

start to appear, and replace earlier statues which are now attributed to Vāsudeva-Krishna. Many of the statues of Vishnu appearing from the 4th century CE, such as the ''Vishnu Caturanana'' ("Four-Armed"), use the attributes and the iconography of Vāsudeva-Krishna, but add an aureole starting at the shoulders. Other statues of Vishnu show him as three-headed (with an implied fourth head in the back), the '' Visnu Vaikuntha Chaturmurti'' or ''Chaturvyuha'' ("Four-Emanations") type, where Vishnu has a human head, flanked by the muzzle of a boar (his avatar

Varaha Varaha ( sa, वराह, , "boar") is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu, in the form of a boar. Varaha is generally listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu. Varaha is most commonly associated with the leg ...

) and the head of a lion (his avatar

Narasimha Narasimha ( sa, नरसिंह, lit=man-lion, ), sometimes rendered Narasingha, is the fourth avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. He is regarded to have incarnated in the form of a part-lion, part-man being to slay Hiranyakashipu, to end rel ...

), two of his most important and ancient avatars, laid out upon his aureole. Recent scholarship considers that these "Vishnu" statues still show the emanation Vāsudeva Krishna as the central human-shaped deity, rather than the Supreme God Vishnu himself. A further variation is Vishnu as three-headed cosmic creator, the '' Visnu Visvarupa'', showing Vishnu with a human head, again flanked by the muzzle of a boar the head of a lion, but with a multitude of beings on his aureole, symbol of the numerous creations and emanations resulting from his creative power.For English summary, see page 80 These sculptures can be dated to the 5th century CE.

Incorporation of Lakshmi

In the 3rd-4th century CE,

, which had been an independent Goddess of prosperity and luck, was incorporated in the

Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

pantheon as the consort of

. She thus became the Hindu goddess of wealth, good fortune, prosperity and beauty. File:Inscribed Pillar - Recording Installation of Two Shiva Lingas by Udita Acharya in the Reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya - 380 CE - Rangeshwar Temple - ACCN 29-1931 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5503.JPG, Pillar recording the installation of

Lingas in the "year 61" (380 CE) during the rule of

. File:WLA brooklynmuseum Vishnu Caturanana Four Armed red sandstone.jpg, Four-faced Vishnu ''Chaturvyuha'' ("Four-Emanations"), 4th-5th century, Mathura File:Vishnu of Mathura, 5th century.jpg,

''Caturanana'' ("Four-Armed"), 5th century, Mathura File:Vishnu sculpture.jpg, Vishnu statue, 5th century, Mathura. File:Bust of Brahma - Circa 6th Century CE - Mathura - Uttar Pradesh - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2013-04-10 7756.JPG, Bust of

, Circa 6th Century CE File:Ganesha - Gupta Period - ACCN 15-758 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5418.JPG, Ganesha, Gupta Period, Mathura

Medieval period (8th-16th century)

Hindu art became largely prevalent from the

Medieval period In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...

onward. It was accompanied by the

decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent Buddhism, which originated in India, gradually dwindled and was replaced by approximately the 12th century. According to Lars Fogelin, this was "not a singular event, with a singular cause; it was a centuries-long process." The decline of Budd ...

. File:Balarama - Early Mediaeval Period - Maholi - ACCN 18-1515 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5791.JPG,

from Mathura,

Early Medieval period The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the Mi ...

(8th-13th century CE). File:Sarvatobhadra Shiva Linga Representing Brahma Vishnu Maheshwar and Surya - Circa 9th Century CE - ACCN TAN-2008 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5307.JPG, Sarvatobhadra Shiva Linga Representing Brahma Vishnu Maheshwar and Surya, Circa 9th Century CE File:Architectural Fragment with Divine Figures - Circa 10th Century CE - ACCN 74-10 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5000.JPG, Architectural Fragment with Divine Figures, circa 10th century CE File:Yaksi.JPG, A Yakshin, 10th century,

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...

Guimet Museum The Guimet Museum (full name in french: Musée national des arts asiatiques-Guimet; MNAAG; ) is an art museum located at 6, place d'Iéna in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, France. Literally translated into English, its full name is the Nation ...

. File:Decorative Door Jamb - Medieval Period - ACCN 00-R-1 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5030.JPG, Decorative Door Jamb – Medieval Period File:Durga - Mediaeval Period - Manasi Ganga - ACCN 87-4 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5088.JPG,

Durga Durga ( sa, दुर्गा, ) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's legend centres around c ...

, Medieval Period File:Fire God - Medieval Period - Radhakund - ACCN 00-D-24 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5297.JPG, Fire God, Medieval Period File:Four-armed Seated Vishnu in Meditation - Mediaeval Period - Pannapur - ACCN 14-379 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5275.JPG, Four-armed Seated

in Meditation, Mediaeval Period File:Jain Tirthankara Neminath - Circa 12th Century CE - ACCN 00-B-77 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-22 4699.JPG, Jain Tirthankara Neminath, Circa 12th Century CE File:Standing Surya - Mediaeval Period - ACCN 84-60 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5137.JPG, Standing Surya, Medieval Period File:Standing Twin Vishnu - Circa 10th Century CE - Gokul Barrage - ACCN 93-31 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5272.JPG, Standing Twin Vishnu, Circa 10th Century CE File:Ten-armed Ganesha - Mediaeval Period - Rataul - ACCN 88-12 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5285.JPG, Ten-armed Ganesha, Medieval Period

Early modern period (16th-19th century)

File:Balarama - Circa 18th Century CE - ACCN 80-6 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5347.JPG,

, circa 18th Century CE File:Krishna Lifting Govardhan Mound - Circa 19th Century CE - ACCN 88-147 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5351.JPG, Krishna Lifting Govardhan Mound, circa 19th Century CE File:Lakshmi Narayan Seated on Garuda - Bronze - Circa 18th Century CE - ACCN 47-3345 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6611.JPG, Lakshmi Narayan Seated on Garuda – Bronze – Circa 18th Century CE

Modern period

File:Kartikeya - Modern Period - ACCN TAN-63 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5061.JPG,

Kartikeya Kartikeya ( sa, कार्त्तिकेय, Kārttikeya), also known as Skanda, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha (), and Murugan ( ta, முருகன்), is the Hindu god of war. He is the son of Parvati and Shiva, the brother of Ganesh ...

, Modern Period File:Lord Krishna Killing to Kaliyanaga Demon - Bronze - Modern Age - ACCN 85-182 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6620.JPG, Lord Krishna Killing to Kaliyanaga Demon, Bronze, Modern Age File:Man Milking Cow with Calf - Bronze - Modern Age - ACCN 83-181 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6539.JPG, Man Milking Cow with Calf, Bronze, Modern Age File:Seated Shiva - Modern Period - Bhuteshwar - ACCN 00-D-43 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5058.JPG, Seated Shiva, Modern Period File:Stupa - Bronze - Modern Age - ACCN 34-2478 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6584.JPG, Stupa, Bronze, Modern Age

Popular Dance and Music Art Forms

Natya Shastra The ''Nāṭya Śāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary ...

and centuries of Hindu cultural traditions have given rise to several art forms. Some of which are: *

Bharatanatyam Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of ...

Kuchipudi Kuchipudi () ( Telugu: ) is one of the eight major Indian classical dances. It originates from a village named Kuchipudi in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Kuchipudi is a dance-drama performance, with its roots in the ancient Hindu Sa ...

* Manipuri *

Mohiniyattam Mohiniyattam, ( ml, മോഹിനിയാട്ടം), is an Indian classical dance form that developed and remained popular in the state of Kerala. Kathakali is another classical dance form of Kerala. Mohiniyattam dance gets its name fr ...

Odissi Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India.Sattriya ''Sattriya'' ( as, সত্ৰীয়া), or ''Sattriya Nritya'', is a major Indian classical dance. This dance was initially created as part of Bhaona which are performances of ''Ankiya Nat'', one-act plays, originally created by Sankar ...

Bhagavata Mela Bhagavata Mela is a classical Indian dance that is performed in Tamil Nadu, particularly the Thanjavur area. It is choreographed as an annual Vaishnavism tradition in Melattur and nearby regions, and celebrated as a dance-drama performance art ...

Yakshagana Yakshagaana is a traditional theatre, developed in Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of Chikmagalur districts, in the state of Karnataka and in Kasaragod district in Kerala that combines dance, music, dialogue, ...

Carnatic Music Carnatic music, known as or in the South Indian languages, is a system of music commonly associated with South India, including the modern Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka. It ...

Flower garland sellers outside Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan

Guru Sanchita Bhattacharya performing as DURGA

64 Traditional Arts

BHANUSINGAR PADAVALI DANCE BALLET DSC 3649

*Singing *Instrumental music **Learning music in

Hindu culture Hinduism () is an Indian religion or ''dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global po ...

was a difficult task before the 20th century because of a necessary birth into a gharana. After the early 1920s integration of anyone wanting to learn classical Hindustani music could. An average ensemble normally includes a harmonium (which was brought to India by westerners), flute,

veena The ''veena'', also spelled ''vina'' ( sa, वीणा IAST: vīṇā), comprises various chordophone instruments from the Indian subcontinent. Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as lutes, zithers and arched harps ...

sitar The sitar ( or ; ) is a plucked stringed instrument, originating from the Indian subcontinent, used in Hindustani classical music. The instrument was invented in medieval India, flourished in the 18th century, and arrived at its present form ...

, swaramandala, and a tabla. Many of the songs have strong themes that are related to theology such as a God's favorite pastimes, praise of any God whether they be in their original form from "the trinity" or the God's reincarnation, even stories of the creation of earth. Since instrumental music is a performance art it must follow strict guidelines that come from the treatise Natya Shastra. *Dancing *Painting **Indian variety – the different types of folk paintings are proud for Indian culture which reflects beauty, tradition and heritage of India. There are many types of traditional paintings like Madhubani, Rajsthani,

Batik Batik is an Indonesian technique of wax-resist dyeing applied to the whole cloth. This technique originated from the island of Java, Indonesia. Batik is made either by drawing dots and lines of the resist with a spouted tool called a ''ca ...

-Art, Patachitra, Gond, Mandala, Tribal Art Warli, Pithora, Bengali, Nirmal,

Mysore Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude o ...

Tanjore Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the ...

paintings etc. which are the expressions of love, almighty, beauty, truth, tradition and art of each and every region of the India. *Forehead adornments *

Rangoli Rangoli is an art form that originates from in the Indian subcontinent, in which patterns are created on the floor or a tabletop using materials such as powdered lime stone, red ochre, dry rice flour, coloured sand, quartz powder, flower petal ...

: Making decorative floral and grain designs on the floor *Home and temple flower arranging *Personal grooming *Mosaic tiling *Bedroom arrangements *Creating music with water *Splashing and squirting with water *Secret mantras *Making flower garlands *Head adornments *Dressing **Drapery- The art of drapery has progressed over time. At one point both men and women wore dhotis but around the 14th century that changed and women's fashion became more intricate thus creating the sari. The drapery involved distinguishes the wearer's taste, occupation, and social status. The fabrics chosen range from cotton and synthetic fabrics all the way to silk. The fabric chosen depends on what occasion the wearer is going to use the item of clothing for. The draping of the sari comes in four different families: Marvari, Dravidian, Tribal, and Nivi. The family that the wearer chooses depends on the wearer's personal taste. The way an item of clothing is draped tells a lot about the wearer such as expression of creativity, progression of fashion, and where the user comes from. *Costume decorations *Perfumery *Jewelry making *Magic and illusions *Ointments for charm and virility *Manual dexterity *Skills of cooking, eating and drinking *Beverage and dessert preparation *Sewing (making and mending garments) *Embroidery *Playing Vina and drum *Riddles and rhymes *Poetry games *Tongue twisters and difficult recitation *Literary recitation *Drama and story telling **Drama in its early essence was performed mainly by male troupes and was often integrated with many of the other traditional art forms such as poetry, music, and story telling. Since drama is a performance art it also follows the

guidelines. *Verse composition games *Furniture caning *Erotic devices and knowledge of sexual arts *Crafting wooden furniture *Architecture and house construction *Distinguishing between ordinary and precious stones and metals *Metal-working *Gems and mining *Gardening and horticulture *Games of wager involving animals *Training parrots and mynas to speak *Hairdressing *Coding messages *Speaking in code *Knowledge of foreign languages and dialects *Making flower carriages *Spells, charms and omens *Making simple mechanical devices *Memory training *Game of reciting verses from hearing *Decoding messages *The meanings of words *Dictionary studies *Prosody and rhetoric *Impersonation *Artful dressing *Games of dice *The game of akarsha (a dice game played on a board) *Making dolls and toys for children *Personal etiquette and animal training *Knowledge of dharmic warfare and victory *Physical culture

Numerical list

#gita — art of singing. #vadya — art of playing on musical instruments. #nritya — art of dancing. #natya — art of theatricals. #alekhya — art of painting. #viseshakacchedya — art of painting the face and body with colored unguents and cosmetics. #tandula-kusuma-bali-vikara — art of preparing offerings from rice and flowers. #pushpastarana — art of making a covering of flowers for a bed. #dasana-vasananga-raga — art of applying preparations for cleansing the teeth, clothes, and painting the body. #mani-bhumika-karma — art of making the jewel garlands. #sayya-racana — art of covering the bed. #udaka-vadya — art of playing on music in water. #udaka-ghata — art of splashing water on ground. #citra-yoga — art of practically applying an admixture of colors. #malya-grathana-vikalpa — art of designing a preparation of wreaths or garlands. #sekharapida-yojana — art of practically setting the coronet on the head. #nepathya-yoga — art of practically dressing #karnapatra-bhanga — art of decorating the tragus of the ear. #sugandha-yukti — art of practical application of aromatics. #bhushana-yojana — art of applying or setting ornaments. #aindra-jala — art of jugglery. #kaucumara — a kind of art. #hasta-laghava — art of sleight of hand. #citra-sakapupa-bhakshya-vikara-kriya — art of preparing varieties of foods – curries, soups, sweetmeats #panaka-rasa-ragasava-yojana — art of preparing palatable drinks and fruit juices #suci-vaya-karma — art of needleworks and weaving. #sutra-krida — art of playing with thread. #vina-damuraka-vadya — art of playing on lute and small x-shaped drum. #prahelika — art of making and solving riddles. ##pratimala — art of caping or reciting verse for verse as a trial for memory or skill. #durvacaka-yoga — art of practicing language difficult to be answered by others. #pustaka-vacana — art of reciting books. #natikakhyayika-darsana — art of enacting short plays and anecdotes. #kavya-samasya-purana — art of solving enigmatic verses. #pattika-vetra-bana-vikalpa — art of designing preparation of shield, cane and arrows. #tarku-karma — art of spinning by spindle. #takshana — art of carpentry. #vastu-vidya — art of engineering. #raupya-ratna-pariksha — art of testing silver and jewels. #dhatu-vada — art of metallurgy. #mani-raga jnana — art of judging jewels. #akara jnana — art of mineralogy. #vrikshayur-veda-yoga — art of practicing medicine or medical treatment, by herbs. #mesha-kukkuta-lavaka-yuddha-vidhi — art of knowing the mode of fighting of lambs, cocks and birds. #suka-sarika-prapalana (pralapana)? — art of maintaining or knowing conversation between male and female cockatoos. #utsadana — art of healing or cleaning a person with perfumes. #kesa-marjana-kausala — art of combing hair. #akshara-mushtika-kathana — art of talking with fingers. #mlecchita-kutarka-vikalpa — art of fabricating barbarous or foreign sophistry. #desa-bhasha-jnana — art of knowing provincial dialects. #pushpa-sakatika-nirmiti-jnana — art of knowing prediction by heavenly voice or knowing preparation of toy carts by flowers. #yantra-matrika — art of mechanics. #dharana-matrika — art of the use of amulets. #samvacya — art of conversation. #manasi kavya-kriya — art of composing verse mentally. #kriya-vikalpa — art of designing a literary work or a medical remedy. #chalitaka-yoga — art of practicing as a builder of shrines #abhidhana-kosha-cchando-jnana — art of the use of lexicography and meters. #vastra-gopana — art of concealment of cloths. #dyuta-visesha — art of knowing specific gambling. #akarsha-krida — art of playing with dice or magnet. #balaka-kridanaka — art of using children's toys. #vainayiki vidya — art of enforcing discipline. #vaijayiki vidya — art of gaining victory. #vaitaliki vidya — art of awakening master with music at dawn #aaaah vidya — art of awakening sound from Mani.

Historic Texts on Art Practices

*Natya Shastra **The Natya Shastra is the leading guide to the Hindu performing arts. It is based on the Natya Veda, which no longer exists, and is roughly 37 chapters long with 6,000

slokas Shloka or śloka ( sa, श्लोक , from the root , Macdonell, Arthur A., ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'', Appendix II, p. 232 (Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1927). in a broader sense, according to Monier-Williams's dictionary, is ...

Cities Dedicated to the Production of Art

* Raghurajpur **This city is solely dedicated to the production of artwork that is driven by the divine forces of Hinduism and these artworks are produced in a traditional fashion. The city is located in Eastern India (Orissa) and at one point this city was at risk of being completely destroyed due to British rule. During this time religion and the power of the kings were being overthrown and as such there was no reason for a city to exist whose main purpose is to supply traditional art. After this crisis occurred the city began to exclusively base itself on agriculture until a man named Jacnnath Mopatra led a training center for chitrakars. This revolution began production of the traditional art works once again in the 1950s and since the work being produced is known internationally.

Common Symbols

*Extra Limbs-Extra limbs are seen on many of the Hindu deities in paintings and sculptures. The extra limbs show how much power the god is capable of because of their ability to perform many tasks at once. Such as the goddess

Sarasvati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a ...

always has a minimum of four arms. Two of the arms will be playing a vina, representing the tuning of her knowledge, prayer beads in another hand and a scripture in another, both of these items are used to represent her devotion to her spirituality. Since she is the goddess of learning and art we see that she is very capable and very powerful in her area of expertise. *Lotus Flower-The lotus flower is another common item seen constantly throughout the arts. The lotus flower represents purity, beauty, prosperity, fertility, and transcendence. The reason the flower shows these attributes is due to the process in which the lotus flower goes through in order to blossom. The flower grows out of mud and rests atop the water in which it grows showing the hardship it must endure in order to achieve maximum beauty. Many deities have their name based on the Sanskrit word for lotus such as Lakshimi."Lotus-Hindu Symbols" Religion Facts. 2007. 15 Apr 2009. < http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/symbols/lotus.htm>.

References

{{Hindudharma Visual arts by religion Art history Asian art