Pan-Germanism (german: Pangermanismus or '), also occasionally known as Pan-Germanicism, is a pan-nationalist political idea. Pan-Germanists originally sought to unify all the German-speaking people – and possibly also Germanic-speaking peoples – in a single

nation-state A nation state is a political unit where the state and nation are congruent. It is a more precise concept than "country", since a country does not need to have a predominant ethnic group. A nation, in the sense of a common ethnicity, may in ...

known as the

Greater Germanic Reich The Greater Germanic Reich (german: Großgermanisches Reich), fully styled the Greater Germanic Reich of the German Nation (german: Großgermanisches Reich deutscher Nation), was the official state name of the political entity that Nazi Germany ...

(german: Großgermanisches Reich), fully styled the Greater Germanic Reich of the German Nation (german: Großgermanisches Reich der Deutschen Nation). Pan-Germanism was highly influential in German politics in the 19th century during the

unification of Germany The unification of Germany (, ) was the process of building the modern German nation state with federal features based on the concept of Lesser Germany (one without multinational Austria), which commenced on 18 August 1866 with adoption of t ...

when the

German Empire The German Empire (),Herbert Tuttle wrote in September 1881 that the term "Reich" does not literally connote an empire as has been commonly assumed by English-speaking people. The term literally denotes an empire – particularly a hereditary ...

was proclaimed as a nation-state in 1871 but without Austria (Kleindeutsche Lösung/Lesser Germany), and the first half of the 20th century in the

Austro-Hungarian Empire Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...

and the German Empire. From the late 19th century, many Pan-Germanist thinkers, since 1891 organized in the

Pan-German League The Pan-German League (german: Alldeutscher Verband) was a Pan-German nationalist organization which was officially founded in 1891, a year after the Zanzibar Treaty was signed. Primarily dedicated to the German Question of the time, it held p ...

, had adopted openly ethnocentric and

racist Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism ...

ideologies, and ultimately gave rise to the foreign policy '' Heim ins Reich'' pursued by

Nazi Germany Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...

under Austrian-born

Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...

from 1938, one of the primary factors leading to the outbreak of

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...

. As a result of the disaster of World War II, Pan-Germanism was mostly seen as a taboo ideology in the postwar period in both

West West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...

and

East Germany East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR; german: Deutsche Demokratische Republik, , DDR, ), was a country that existed from its creation on 7 October 1949 until its dissolution on 3 October 1990. In these years the state ...

. Today, Pan-Germanism is mainly limited to some nationalist groups in Germany and Austria.

Etymology

The word ''pan'' is a

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

word element meaning "all, every, whole, all-inclusive". The word "German" in this context derives from

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

"Germani" originally used by

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...

referring to tribes or a single tribe in northeastern

Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...

. In the

Late Middle Ages The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renai ...

, it acquired a loose meaning referring to the speakers of

Germanic languages The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania and Southern Africa. The most widely spoken Germanic language, E ...

(alongside ' Almain' and '

Teuton The Teutons ( la, Teutones, , grc, Τεύτονες) were an ancient northern European tribe mentioned by Roman authors. The Teutons are best known for their participation, together with the Cimbri and other groups, in the Cimbrian War with th ...

') most of whom spoke dialects ancestral to

modern German New High German (NHG; german: Neuhochdeutsch (Nhd.)) is the term used for the most recent period in the history of the German language, starting in the 17th century. It is a loan translation of the German (). The most important characteristic o ...

. In English, "Pan-German" was first attested in 1892. In German, there exists a synonym "''Alldeutsche Bewegung''" which is a

calque In linguistics, a calque () or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language w ...

using German instead of Latin and Greek roots.

Origins (before 1860)

The origins of Pan-Germanism began with the birth of Romantic nationalism during the

Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...

, with Friedrich Ludwig Jahn and

Ernst Moritz Arndt Ernst Moritz Arndt (26 December 1769 – 29 January 1860) was a German nationalist historian, writer and poet. Early in his life, he fought for the abolition of serfdom, later against Napoleonic dominance over Germany. Arndt had to flee to Swe ...

being early proponents.

Germans , native_name_lang = de , region1 = , pop1 = 72,650,269 , region2 = , pop2 = 534,000 , region3 = , pop3 = 157,000 3,322,405 , region4 = , pop4 = ...

, for the most part, had been a loose and disunited people since the

Reformation The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...

, when the

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...

was shattered into a patchwork of states following the end of the

Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in Central Europe, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of battle ...

with the Peace of Westphalia. Advocates of the ''Großdeutschland'' (Greater Germany) solution sought to unite all the German-speaking people in Europe, under the leadership of the German Austrians from the

Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire (german: link=no, Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling , ) was a Central-Eastern European multinational great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs. During its existence ...

. Pan-Germanism was widespread among the revolutionaries of 1848, notably among Richard Wagner and the

Brothers Grimm The Brothers Grimm ( or ), Jacob (1785–1863) and Wilhelm (1786–1859), were a brother duo of German academics, philologists, cultural researchers, lexicographers, and authors who together collected and published folklore. They are among the ...

. Writers such as

Friedrich List Georg Friedrich List (6 August 1789 – 30 November 1846) was a German-American economist who developed the "National System" of political economy. He was a forefather of the German historical school of economics, and argued for the German Custom ...

and Paul Anton Lagarde argued for German hegemony in Central and Eastern Europe, where German domination in some areas had begun as early as the 9th century AD with the Ostsiedlung, Germanic expansion into Slavic and Baltic lands. For the Pan-Germanists, this movement was seen as a

Drang nach Osten (; 'Drive to the East',Ulrich Best''Transgression as a Rule: German–Polish cross-border cooperation, border discourse and EU-enlargement'' 2008, p. 58, , Edmund Jan Osmańczyk, Anthony Mango, ''Encyclopedia of the United Nations and Interna ...

, in which Germans would be naturally inclined to seek

Lebensraum (, ''living space'') is a German concept of settler colonialism, the philosophy and policies of which were common to German politics from the 1890s to the 1940s. First popularized around 1901, '' lso in:' became a geopolitical goal of Imper ...

by moving eastwards to reunite with the German minorities there. The ''Deutschlandlied'' ("Song of Germany"), written in 1841 by August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, in its first stanza defines ''Deutschland'' as reaching "From the Meuse (river), Meuse to the Neman River, Memel / From the Adige to the Little Belt, Belt", i.e. as including East Prussia and South Tyrol. Reflecting upon the First Schleswig War in 1848, Karl Marx noted in 1853 that "by quarrelling amongst themselves, instead of confederating, Germans and Scandinavians, both of them belonging to the same great race, only prepare the way for their hereditary enemy, the Slavs, Slav."

The German Question

By the 1860s Kingdom of Prussia, Prussia and Austrian Empire, Austria had become the two most powerful states dominated by German language, German-speaking elites. Both sought to expand their influence and territory. The Austrian Empire—like the

—was a multi-ethnic state, but the German-speaking people there did not have an absolute numerical majority; its re-shaping into the

was one result of the growing nationalism of other ethnicities—especially the Hungarians. Under Prussian leadership, Otto von Bismarck would ride on the coat-tails of nationalism to unite all of the northern German lands. After Bismarck excluded Austria and the German Austrians from Germany in the Austro-Prussian war, German war of 1866 and (following a few other events over the next few years), the

, established the Prussian-dominated

in 1871 with the proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor, head of a union of German-speaking states, while disregarding millions of its non-German subjects who desired self-determination from German rule. After World War I the Pan-Germanist philosophy changed drastically during Adolf Hitler's rise to power. Pan-Germanists originally sought to unify all the German-speaking Europe, German-speaking populations of Europe in a single

known as ''Großdeutschland'' (Greater Germany), where "German-speaking" was sometimes taken as synonymous with Germanic languages, Germanic-speaking, to the inclusion of the Frisian languages, Frisian- and Dutch language, Dutch-speaking populations of the Low Countries, and Scandinavia. Although Bismarck had excluded Austria and the German Austrians from his creation of the Kleindeutschland state in 1871, integrating the German Austrians nevertheless remained a strong desire for many people of both Austria and Germany. The most radical Austrian pan-German Georg Schönerer (1842–1921) and :de:Karl Hermann Wolf, Karl Hermann Wolf (1862–1941) articulated Pan-Germanist sentiments in the

. There was also a rejection of Roman Catholicism with the Away from Rome! movement (ca 1900 onwards) calling for German-speakers to identify with Lutheran or Old Catholic churches. The Pan-German Movement gained an institutional format in 1891, when :de:Ernst Hasse, Ernst Hasse, a professor at the University of Leipzig and a member of the Reichstag (German Empire), Reichstag, organized the

, an ultra-nationalist political-interest organization which promoted imperialism, anti-semitism, and support for ethnic German minorities in other countries. The organization achieved great support among the educated middle class, middle and upper class; it promoted German nationalist consciousness, especially among ethnic Germans outside German Empire, Germany. In his three-volume work, "Deutsche Politik" (1905–07), Hasse called for German imperialist expansion in Europe. The Munich professor Karl Haushofer, :de:Ewald Banse, Ewald Banse, and Hans Grimm (author of the novel ''Volk ohne Raum'') preached similar expansionism, expansionist policies. During the German entry into World War I, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg prepared the Septemberprogramm proposing that the

use the World War I, First World War to seek massive territorial annexations similar to the ones demanded by pan-German nationalists. The West Germany, West German historian Fritz Fischer argued in his 1962 thesis ''Germany's Aims in the First World War'' that this and other documents indicated that Germany was responsible for World War I and intended to fulfill pan-German aims, although other historians have since disputed this conclusion. When Bethmann-Hollweg later endorsed a negotiated peace without annexations, Naval Minister Alfred von Tirpitz resigned from the Cabinet in protest and united pan-German nationalists under the German Fatherland Party in the Reichstag (German Empire), Reichstag.

Pan-Germanism in Austria

After the Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas, in which the Liberal nationalism, liberal nationalistic revolutionaries advocated the Greater German solution, the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War (1866) with the effect that Austria was now excluded from Germany, and increasing ethnic conflicts in the multinational Habsburg monarchy, a German national movement evolved in Austria. Led by the radical German nationalist and Antisemitism in Austria, Austrian anti-Semite Georg Ritter von Schönerer, organisations such as the ''Pan-German Society'' demanded the annexation of all German-speaking territories under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy to the German Empire, and fervently rejected Austrian nationalism and a pan-Austrian identity. Schönerer's Völkisch movement, völkisch and Racism, racist German nationalism was an inspiration to

's Nazism, Nazi ideology. In 1933, Austrian National Socialism, Austrian Nazis and the national-liberal Greater German People's Party formed an action group, fighting together against the Austrofascism, Austrofascist Federal State of Austria which imposed a distinct Austrian national identity and in accordance said that Austrians were "better Germans." Kurt Schuschnigg adopted a policy of appeasement towards

and called Austria the "better German state", but he still struggled to keep Austria independent. With "Anschluss" of Austria in 1938, the historic aim of Austria's German nationalists was achieved. After the end of Nazi Germany and the events of

in 1945, the ideas of pan-Germanism and an ''Anschluss'' fell out of favour due to their association with Nazism and allowed Austrians to develop their own national identity. Nevertheless, such notions were revived with the German national camp in the Federation of Independents and the early Freedom Party of Austria.

Pan-Germanism in Scandinavia

The idea of including the North Germanic languages, North Germanic-speaking Scandinavians into a Pan-German state, sometimes referred to as Pan-Germanicism, was promoted alongside mainstream pan-German ideas. Jacob Grimm adopted Munch's anti-Danish Pan-Germanism and argued that the entire peninsula of Jutland had been populated by Germans before the arrival of the Danes and that thus it could justifiably be reclaimed by Germany, whereas the rest of Denmark should be incorporated into Sweden. This line of thinking was countered by Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae, an archaeologist who had excavated parts of Danevirke, who argued that there was no way of knowing the language of the earliest inhabitants of Danish territory. He also pointed out that Germany had more solid historical claims to large parts of France and England, and that Slavs—by the same reasoning—could annex parts of Former eastern territories of Germany, Eastern Germany. Regardless of the strength of Worsaae's arguments, pan-Germanism spurred on the German nationalists of Schleswig and Holstein and led to the First Schleswig War in 1848. In turn, this likely contributed to the fact that Pan-Germanism never caught on in Denmark as much as it did in Norway. Pan-Germanic tendencies were particularly widespread among the Norwegian romantic nationalism, Norwegian independence movement. Prominent supporters included Peter Andreas Munch, Christopher Bruun, Knut Hamsun, Henrik Ibsen and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson. Bjørnson, who wrote the lyrics for the Ja, vi elsker dette landet, Norwegian national anthem, proclaimed in 1901: In the 20th century the German Nazi Party sought to create a

that would include most of the Germanic peoples of Europe within it under the leadership of Germany, including peoples such as the Danes, the Dutch people, Dutch, the Swedes, the Norwegians, and the Flemish people, Flemish within it. Anti-German Scandinavism surged in Denmark in the 1930s and 1940s in response to the pan-Germanic ambitions of Nazi Germany. NS administrative Gliederung 1944

1918 to 1945

World War I became the first attempt to carry out the Pan-German ideology in practice, and the Pan-German movement argued forcefully for expansionist imperialism.World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1 Cyprian Blamires ABC-CLIO, 2006. pp. 499–501 Following the defeat in World War I, the influence of German-speaking elites over Central and Eastern Europe was greatly limited. At the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was substantially reduced in size. Austria-Hungary was split up. A rump Austria, which to a certain extent corresponded to the Austria-Hungary#Linguistic distribution, German-speaking areas of Austria-Hungary (a complete split into language groups was impossible due to multi-lingual areas and language-exclaves) adopted the name "German Austria" (german: link=no, Deutschösterreich) in hope for union with Weimar Republic, Germany. Union with Germany and the name "German Austria" was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), Treaty of St. Germain and the name had to be changed back to Austria. It was in the Weimar Republic that the Austrian-born

, under the influence of the stab-in-the-back myth, first took up German nationalist ideas in his ''Mein Kampf''. Hitler met Heinrich Class in 1918, and Class provided Hitler with support for the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler and his supporters shared most of the basic pan-German visions with the

, but differences in political style led the two groups to open rivalry. The German Workers Party of Bohemia cut its ties to the pan-German movement, which was seen as being too dominated by the upper classes, and joined forces with the German Workers Party led by Anton Drexler, which later became the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party, NSDAP) that was to be headed by Adolf Hitler from 1921.Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution, Volume 1, Richard S. Levy, 529–530, ABC-CLIO 2005 Nazi propaganda also used the political slogan ''Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer'' ("One people, one Reich, one leader"), to enforce pan-German sentiment in Austria for an "Anschluss". The chosen name for the projected empire was a deliberate reference to the

(of the German Nation) that existed in the Middle Ages, known as the ''First Reich'' in Nazi historiography.Hattstein 2006, p. 321. Different aspects of the legacy of this medieval empire in German history were both celebrated and derided by the Government of Nazi Germany, Nazi government. Hitler admired the Frankish Empire, Frankish Emperor Charlemagne for his "cultural creativity", his powers of organization, and his renunciation of the Individual liberty, rights of the individual. He criticized the Holy Roman Emperor, Holy Roman Emperors however for not pursuing an ''Ostpolitik'' (Drang Nach Osten, Eastern Policy) resembling his own, while being politically focused exclusively on Italy, the south. After the ''Anschluss'', Hitler ordered the old Austrian Crown Jewels#The Holy Roman Empire, imperial regalia (the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire, Imperial Crown, Imperial Sword, Spear of Destiny#Vienna Lance .28Hofburg spear.29, the Holy Lance and other items) residing in Vienna to be transferred to Nuremberg, where they were kept between 1424 and 1796. Nuremberg, in addition to being the former unofficial capital of the Holy Roman Empire, was also the place of the Nuremberg rallies. The transfer of the regalia was thus done to both legitimize Hitler's Germany as the successor of the "Old Reich", but also weaken Vienna, the former imperial residence. After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, 1939 German occupation of Bohemia, Hitler declared that the Holy Roman Empire had been "resurrected", although he secretly maintained his own empire to be better than the old "Roman" one.Brockmann 2006, p. 179. Unlike the "uncomfortably Multinational state, internationalist Catholic empire of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, Barbarossa", the Germanic Reich of the German Nation would be racist and nationalist. Rather than a return to the values of the Middle Ages, its establishment was to be "Progress (history), a push forward to a new Golden age (metaphor), golden age, in which the best aspects of the past would be combined with modern racist and nationalist thinking". The historical borders of the Holy Roman Empire were also used as grounds for territorial revisionism by the NSDAP, laying claim to modern territories and states that were once part of it. Even before the war, Hitler had dreamed of reversing the Peace of Westphalia, which had given the territories of the Empire almost complete sovereignty.Sager & Winkler 2007, p. 74. On November 17, 1939, Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, Reich Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels wrote in Goebbels Diaries, his diary that the "total liquidation" of this historic treaty was the "great goal" of the Nazi regime, and that since it had been signed in Münster, it would also be officially repealed in the same city. The '' Heim ins Reich'' ("Back Home to the Reich") initiative was a policy pursued by the Nazis which attempted to convince the ethnic Germans living outside of

(such as in Austria and Sudetenland) that they should strive to bring these regions "home" into a Kleindeutschland and Großdeutschland#Later influence, Greater Germany. This notion also led the way for an even more expansive state to be envisioned, the Greater Germanic Reich, which Nazi Germany tried to establish.Elvert 1999, p. 325. This pan-Germanic empire was expected to Annexation, assimilate practically all of Germanic languages, Germanic Europe into an enormously expanded Greater Germanic Reich. Territorially speaking, this encompassed the already-enlarged Reich itself (consisting of pre-1938 Germany plus the Areas annexed by Nazi Germany, areas annexed into the ''Großdeutsche Reich''), the Netherlands, Belgium, zone interdite#Zone of intended German settlement, areas in north-eastern France considered to be historically and ethnically Germanic, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, at least the German-speaking Switzerland, German-speaking parts of Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.Rich 1974, pp. 401–402. The most notable exception was the predominantly Anglo-Saxons, Anglo-Saxon United Kingdom, which was not projected as having to be reduced to a German province but to instead become an Political alliance, allied seafaring partner of the Germans. The eastern ''Reichskommissariats'' in the vast stretches of Ukraine and Russia were also intended for future integration, with Generalplan Ost, plans for them stretching to the Volga or even beyond the Urals. They were deemed of vital interest for the survival of the German nation, as it was a core tenet of Nazism, Nazi ideology that it needed "living space" (''

''), creating a "pull towards the East" (''

'') where that could be found and colonization, colonized, in a model that the Nazis explicitly derived from the American Manifest Destiny in the American frontier, Far West and its clearing of native inhabitants. As the foreign volunteers of the Waffen-SS were increasingly of non-Germanic origin, especially after the Battle of Stalingrad, among the organization's leadership (e.g. Felix Steiner) the proposition for a Greater Germanic Empire gave way to a concept of a European union of self-governing states, unified by German hegemony and the common enemy of Bolshevism. The Waffen-SS was to be the eventual nucleus of a common European army where each state would be represented by a national contingent. Himmler himself, however, gave no concession to these views, and held on to his Pan-Germanic vision in a speech given in April 1943 to the officers of the 1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich, 2nd SS Panzer Division ''Das Reich'' and the 3rd SS Division Totenkopf, 3rd SS Division ''Totenkopf'':

History since 1945

The defeat of Germany in

brought about the decline of Pan-Germanism, much as World War I had led to the demise of Pan-Slavism. Parts of Germany itself were devastated, and the country was divided, firstly into Soviet, French, American, and British zones and then into West Germany and

. The German nationalism in Austria, German identity in Austria was also weakened. The end of World War II brought even larger territorial losses for Germany than the First World War, with vast former eastern territories of Germany, portions of eastern Germany directly annexed by the Soviet Union and Poland. The scale of the Germans' defeat was unprecedented; Pan-Germanism became taboo because it had been tied to racist concepts of the "master race" and ''Nordicism'' by the Nazi party. However, the reunification of Germany in 1990 revived the old debates.

References

Notes Further reading * Chickering, Roger. ''We Men Who Feel Most German: Cultural Study of the Pan-German League, 1886–1914''. Harper Collins Publishers Ltd. 1984. * Kleineberg, A.; Marx Chr.; Knobloch E.; Lelgemann D. ''Germania und die Insel Thule. Die Entschlüsselung von Ptolemaios'"Atlas der Oikumene".'' WBG 2010. . * Jackisch, Barry Andrew. Not a Large, but a Strong Right': The Pan-German League, Radical Nationalism, and Rightist Party Politics in Weimar Germany, 1918–1939''. Bell and Howell Information and Learning Company: Ann Arbor. 2000. * Wertheimer, Mildred. ''The Pan-German League, 1890–1914''. Columbia University Press: New York. 1924. {{Authority control Pan-Germanism, German nationalism Modern history of Germany Political movements Politics of Nazi Germany Pan-nationalism, Germanism German irredentism Sudetenland