The

Goths The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Euro ...

Gepids The Gepids, ( la, Gepidae, Gipedae, grc, Γήπαιδες) were an East Germanic tribe who lived in the area of modern Romania, Hungary and Serbia, roughly between the Tisza, Sava and Carpathian Mountains. They were said to share the relig ...

Vandals The Vandals were a Germanic peoples, Germanic people who first inhabited what is now southern Poland. They established Vandal Kingdom, Vandal kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, and North Africa in the fifth century. The ...

, and

Burgundians The Burgundians ( la, Burgundes, Burgundiōnes, Burgundī; on, Burgundar; ang, Burgendas; grc-gre, Βούργουνδοι) were an early Germanic tribe or group of tribes. They appeared in the middle Rhine region, near the Roman Empire, and ...

were East Germanic groups who appear in Roman records in

Late Antiquity Late antiquity is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English h ...

. At times these groups warred against or allied with the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...

, the

Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...

, and various

Germanic tribes The Germanic peoples were historical groups of people that once occupied Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and e ...

. The size and social composition of their armies remains controversial.

History

In the

3rd century The 3rd century was the period from 201 ( CCI) to 300 ( CCC) Anno Domini (AD) or Common Era (CE) in the Julian calendar.. In this century, the Roman Empire saw a crisis, starting with the assassination of the Roman Emperor Severus Alexande ...

, some Germanic people of the Baltic Sea (associated with the Wielbark culture) followed the

Vistula The Vistula (; pl, Wisła, ) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest river in Europe, at in length. The drainage basin, reaching into three other nations, covers , of which is in Poland. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in ...

, Bug, and Dnestr rivers and settled among the

Dacians The Dacians (; la, Daci ; grc-gre, Δάκοι, Δάοι, Δάκαι) were the ancient Indo-European inhabitants of the cultural region of Dacia, located in the area near the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea. They are often consi ...

Sarmatians The Sarmatians (; grc, Σαρμαται, Sarmatai; Latin: ) were a large confederation of ancient Eastern Iranian equestrian nomadic peoples of classical antiquity who dominated the Pontic steppe from about the 3rd century BC to the 4th cen ...

Bastarnae The Bastarnae ( Latin variants: ''Bastarni'', or ''Basternae''; grc, Βαστάρναι or Βαστέρναι) and Peucini ( grc, Πευκῖνοι) were two ancient peoples who between 200 BC and 300 AD inhabited areas north of the Roman front ...

, and other peoples of the Black Sea steppes. These Germanic people brought their name and language to the Gothic people who emerged in the 3rd century (associated with the

Chernyakhov Culture The Chernyakhov culture, Cherniakhiv culture or Sântana de Mureș—Chernyakhov culture was an archaeological culture that flourished between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE in a wide area of Eastern Europe, specifically in what is now Ukraine, Rom ...

). At the same time, other Germanic people of the Baltic Sea (associated with the

Przeworsk culture The Przeworsk culture () was an Iron Age material culture in the region of what is now Poland, that dates from the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD. It takes its name from the town Przeworsk, near the village where the first artifacts w ...

) followed other trade routes to the middle-Danubian plains (Vandals) or the

Main river Main rivers () are a statutory type of watercourse in England and Wales, usually larger streams and rivers, but also some smaller watercourses. A main river is designated by being marked as such on a main river map, and can include any structure o ...

(

). Horse nomads with bow-armed cavalry armies, including the Sarmatians (or

Iazyges The Iazyges (), singular Ἰάζυξ. were an ancient Sarmatian tribe that traveled westward in BC from Central Asia to the steppes of modern Ukraine. In BC, they moved into modern-day Hungary and Serbia near the Dacian steppe between t ...

, Roxolanni, Taifali, and

Alans The Alans (Latin: ''Alani'') were an ancient and medieval Iranian nomadic pastoral people of the North Caucasus – generally regarded as part of the Sarmatians, and possibly related to the Massagetae. Modern historians have connected the A ...

) had long ruled the plains north of the Danube and the steppes north of the Black Sea (since about 1200 BC). (The Goths and Vandals were mainly farmers with infantry armies). In some areas, the Sarmatians, Taifali, and Alans preserved their dominance until the Huns arrived. The Gothic people had divided into two or more groups by the end of the 3rd century. These groups lasted from the late 3rd century to the late 4th century. The

Thervingi The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised Tervings or Thervings) were a Gothic people of the plains north of the Lower Danube and west of the Dniester River in the 3rd and the 4th centuries. They had close contacts with the G ...

lived between the Danube and the Carpathians west of the

Dniester River The Dniester, ; rus, Дне́стр, links=1, Dnéstr, ˈdⁿʲestr; ro, Nistru; grc, Τύρᾱς, Tyrās, ; la, Tyrās, la, Danaster, label=none, ) ( ,) is a transboundary river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and t ...

; the Greuthungi, and possibly other groups, lived east of the Dniester River.

Jordanes Jordanes (), also written as Jordanis or Jornandes, was a 6th-century Eastern Roman bureaucrat widely believed to be of Gothic descent who became a historian later in life. Late in life he wrote two works, one on Roman history ('' Romana'') an ...

, a mid 6th-century historian, describes a large Greuthung kingdom in the late 4th century, but

Ammianus Marcellinus Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian) (born , died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). His work, known as the ''Res Gestae ...

, a late 4th-century historian, does not record this. Many modern historians, including

Peter Heather Peter John Heather (born 8 June 1960) is a British historian of late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Heather is Chair of the Medieval History Department and Professor of Medieval History at King's College London. He specialises in the fall ...

and Michael Kulikowski, doubt that it was ever particularly extensive (and suggest one or more smaller kingdoms).

Troop types

Gothic armies were primarily composed of heavy infantry equipped with a shield, spatha or scramasax and the occasional

francisca The francisca (or francesca) is a throwing axe used as a weapon during the Early Middle Ages by the Franks, among whom it was a characteristic national weapon at the time of the Merovingians from about 500 to 750 and is known to have been us ...

and pike formed in wedge formation, with a supporting heavy cavalry force equipped with lance and sword. Cavalry mainly took the form of heavy, close combat cavalry backed up by light scouts and horse archers. For a Gothic or Vandal nobleman the most common form of armour was a mail shirt, often reaching down to the knees, and an iron or steel helmet, often in a Roman Ridge helm style. Some of the wealthiest warriors may have a worn a lamellar cuirass over mail, and splinted greaves and vambraces on the forearms and forelegs.

Realms in the Roman Empire

This Gothic society faced internal strife and

Hunnish The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was par ...

attacks in the late 4th century. As a result, several groups sought refuge in the Roman Empire; two of the more successful groups, the

Thervings The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised Tervings or Thervings) were a Gothic people of the plains north of the Lower Danube and west of the Dniester River in the 3rd and the 4th centuries. They had close contacts with the G ...

and

Greuthungs The Greuthungi (also spelled Greutungi) were a Gothic people who lived on the Pontic steppe between the Dniester and Don rivers in what is now Ukraine, in the 3rd and the 4th centuries. They had close contacts with the Tervingi, another Gothic ...

, absorbed smaller groups and gained independence within the Roman Empire. Another group, the

Crimean Goths The Crimean Goths were Greuthungi-Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea, especially in Crimea. They were the longest-lasting of the Gothic communities. Their existence is well attested through the ages, though the exact p ...

, survived on the Black Sea. The

and

shared similar histories. The Visigothic and Burgundian kingdoms in Gaul fell to Clovis' Frankish invasions in the early 6th century; the Vandal kingdom in north Africa and the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and Illyria fell to

Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized '' renov ...

's Byzantine invasions by the mid 6th century. The Visigothic kingdom in Hispania survived (despite losing most of their old Gallic territory) until the Islamic conquest of Hispania in the early 8th century.

Gothic society and forces in the 3rd and 4th centuries

The Gothic tribes did not have long-term standing armies but relied on short-term levies or volunteers. Most would return to their farms after some time. Most came on foot and fought as infantry, though some brought horses and fought as cavalry. Like their Roman opponents, most soldiers had thrusting spears, throwing spears, and shields, though swords and bows were also used. Unlike their Roman opponents, few could afford metal armor. :Major wars: :* Gothic raid on Histria (238)Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, ''Rome's Gothic Wars'', p. 18. :* Gothic raid on Marcianople (249) :* Cniva's Gothic raid on Philippopolis (250–251) :* Seaborne raids on the Balkans (c. 252)Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'', book 1. :* Seaborne raids on Asia Minor (c. 256) :* Seaborne raid on the Aegean (c. 268) :* Gothic raids on the Balkans (c. 270) :*

Aurelian Aurelian ( la, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus; 9 September 214 October 275) was a Roman emperor, who reigned during the Crisis of the Third Century, from 270 to 275. As emperor, he won an unprecedented series of military victories which reunited ...

's Roman raids north of the Danube (c. 271) :* Gothic raids on Asia Minor (c. 275) :* Gothic (?) raids in the Balkans (c. 330?) :* Constantine II's Roman invasion north of the Danube (332) :* Julian's Roman invasion of

Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...

(363) (?) :* Roman Civil War between Procopius and

Valens Valens ( grc-gre, Ουάλης, Ouálēs; 328 – 9 August 378) was Roman emperor from 364 to 378. Following a largely unremarkable military career, he was named co-emperor by his elder brother Valentinian I, who gave him the eastern half of ...

(365)Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'', book 4. :*

' raids on the

(367–369)Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Historiae'', book 27, chapter 5. :* Hunnic raids on the

(c. 370)Heather, Peter, 1998, ''Goths'', pp. 98-104.Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, ''Rome's Gothic Wars'', pp. 124-128. :* Hunnic raids on the

(c. 376) :* Gothic revolt in the Balkans (c. 376–382) :* Gothic Civil War between Fritigern &

Athanaric Athanaric or Atanaric ( la, Athanaricus; died 381) was king of several branches of the Thervingian Goths () for at least two decades in the 4th century. Throughout his reign, Athanaric was faced with invasions by the Roman Empire, the Huns and a c ...

(?) :*

Odotheus Odotheus (in Zosimus ''Aedotheus'') was a Greuthungi king who in 386 led an incursion into the Roman Empire. He was defeated and killed by the Roman general Promotus. His surviving people settled in Phrygia. Invasion of Roman Empire After the ...

' crossing of the Danube (?) :Notable battles: :* Abrittus (251) :* Naissus (268) :* Marcianople (376/77) :* Ad Salices (377) :* Adrianople (378)

Difference of scale

The 3rd- and 4th-century Gothic tribes could not match the population or extent of the Roman Empire. The 4th-century

settled over about 100,000 km² between the Carpathian mountains, Olt river, Danube river, and Pruth river. (The Eastern Roman Empire held about 1,500,000 km² in round numbers). The destruction of one Gothic army would leave its tribe vulnerable to Roman attacks; the destruction of one Roman army could be countered by other Roman armies moving into the war zone (as happened after Adrianople). Therefore, 3rd- and 4th-century Gothic armies could not take as many risks as Roman armies could.

Defending Gothic settlements (on the steppe)

The Gothic people generally settled in unwalled farming settlements along the main rivers. These settlements were vulnerable to Roman, Hunnish, or other attacks, even by small raiding parties.

and the

Roman army The Roman army (Latin: ) was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom (c. 500 BC) to the Roman Republic (500–31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC–395 AD), and its medieval contin ...

invaded Therving lands in 367 and 369.

and his supporters avoided battle; his army abandoned the Danubian plains and retreated into the Carpathian Mountains. The Goths could not defeat the Romans in battle and defend their homes. Alan and Hunnic raiders attacked various Gothic lands in the 370s; they attacked Therving lands c. 375.

and his supporters sought battle; the main Gothic army assembled on the Dnestr river, with forward units scouted 30 km ahead. The Hunnic raiders avoided the scouts and attacked the main army at night.

Attacking Roman territory (by land)

The

fortified most of its cities and frontier garrisons in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Fortified settlements were relatively safe from Gothic attacks. Gothic attackers could choose unfortified targets; these included many cities in the 3rd century, but were generally restricted to smaller towns and

villa A villa is a type of house that was originally an ancient Roman upper class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became ...

e by the 4th century, as more cities were fortified. Alternatively, they could attack fortified targets, relying on surprise, on treachery, or on siege warfare.

Attacking Roman territory (by sea)

In the 3rd century, several Gothic campaigns went by sea. In the 4th century, few, if any, Gothic campaigns went by sea.

Revolts

As soon as large Gothic groups settled on Roman territory, they faced military conflicts with the Roman government (as in the

Gothic War (376–382) Between 376 and 382 the Gothic War against the Eastern Roman Empire, and in particular the Battle of Adrianople, is commonly seen as a major turning point in the history of the Roman Empire, the first of a series of events over the next century ...

Gothic and Vandal forces in the Late Roman army

The

Late Roman army In modern scholarship, the "late" period of the Roman army begins with the accession of the Emperor Diocletian in AD 284, and ends in 480 with the death of Julius Nepos, being roughly coterminous with the Dominate. During the period 395–47 ...

(or

East Roman army The Eastern Roman army refers to the army of the eastern section of the Roman Empire, from the empire's definitive split in 395 AD to the army's reorganization by themes after the permanent loss of Syria, Palestine and Egypt to the Arabs in the ...

for the east) often recruited non-Roman soldiers into regular military units, as well as separate allied contingents (of ''

laeti Laeti , the plural form of laetus , was a term used in the late Roman Empire to denote communities of ''barbari'' ("barbarians"), i.e. foreigners, or people from outside the Empire, permitted to settle on, and granted land in, imperial territory ...

'' and ''

foederati ''Foederati'' (, singular: ''foederatus'' ) were peoples and cities bound by a treaty, known as ''foedus'', with Rome. During the Roman Republic, the term identified the ''socii'', but during the Roman Empire, it was used to describe foreign stat ...

''). Most soldiers were probably Romans, many were probably non-Roman. :Notable battles: :* Frigidus River (394)

Germanic forces in the Hunnic army

By the early 5th century, Hunnic elites established their hegemony in Eastern and Central Europe by subduing or dislodging the local elites. The Hunnic rulers had thus an empire at their disposal with the resources of subject people who were required to supply additional forces for their ongoing raids and conquests. The most memorable of their rulers became

Attila Attila (, ; ), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. He was also the leader of a tribal empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Bulgars, among others, in Central and E ...

, who eventually challenged the Roman Empire for supremacy. After the death of Attila, one of his subject rulers,

Ardaric Ardaric ( la, Ardaricus; c. 450 AD) was the king of the Gepids, a Germanic tribe closely related to the Goths. He was "famed for his loyalty and wisdom," one of the most trusted adherents of Attila the Hun, who "prized him above all the other chi ...

, waged a successful civil war against the heirs of Attila, helping several tribes to break apart and regain their independence. :Notable battles: :* Chalons (451) :* Nedao River (454)

Visigothic armies (396–507)

During the Gothic revolt of 376, a mixed Gothic group settled in

Moesia Moesia (; Latin: ''Moesia''; el, Μοισία, Moisía) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River, which included most of the territory of modern eastern Serbia, Kosovo, north-eastern Alban ...

. By the 390s Alaric had become the client king of the

Visigoths The Visigoths (; la, Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, Wisi) were an early Germanic people who, along with the Ostrogoths, constituted the two major political entities of the Goths within the Roman Empire in late antiquity, or what is k ...

under the

Roman empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...

. Between 395 and 418, Alaric, Athawulf, and their immediate successors fought several campaigns, seeking offices for themselves and support for their followers. They transferred their base of operations from the eastern Balkans (395) to the western Balkans (397), Italy (408), and Aquitaine (c. 415). These successive movements may have divided the army from much of its population base. :Notable battles: :* Pollentia (402) :*

Verona Verona ( , ; vec, Verona or ) is a city on the Adige River in Veneto, Italy, with 258,031 inhabitants. It is one of the seven provincial capitals of the region. It is the largest city municipality in the region and the second largest in nor ...

(402) :* Narbonne (436) :* Chalons (451) :* Voglada (507)

Visigothic armies (507–711)

:Notable battles: :* Guadalete (711)

Vandal armies (406–534)

:Notable battles: :*

Sack of Rome (455) The Sack of 455 was the third of four ancient sacks of Rome; it was conducted by the Vandals, who were then at war with the usurping Western Roman Emperor Petronius Maximus. Background In the 440s, the Vandal king Genseric and the Roman Em ...

Ad Decimum The Battle of Ad Decimum took place on September 13, 533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, and the Byzantine Empire, under the command of General Belisarius. This event and events in the following year are sometimes ...

(533) :* Tricameron (533)

Ostrogothic armies (489–553)

Ostrogothic armies may have had the same organizational structure (with separate field armies and frontier armies) as contemporary Byzantine armies. Ostrogothic Italy, like the Late Roman Empire, fortified its cities and military bases. The Italian-Ostrogothic army, like the Late Roman and Byzantine army, could transport food and other military supplies from secure areas to war zones. This allowed the Ostrogothic army to assemble more troops in one place (than earlier Gothic armies) without consuming as much of the local food supply. :Notable battles: :* Isonzo (489) :* Verona (489) :* Faventia (542) :*

Taginae Gualdo Tadino (Latin: ''Tadinum'') is an ancient town of Italy, in the province of Perugia in northeastern Umbria, on the lower flanks of Monte Penna, a mountain of the Apennines. It is NE of Perugia. History Gualdo has a long history and was ...

(552) :* Mons Lactarius (553)

Weapons and armor

There is little direct evidence for Gothic military equipment. There is more evidence for Vandal, Roman, and West Germanic military equipment, which provides the base for inferences about Gothic military equipment.

Germanic and Roman weapons and armor

Generally speaking there was little difference between well-armed Germanic and Roman soldiers; furthermore many Germanic soldiers served in the Roman forces. The Roman army was better able to equip its soldiers than the Germanic armies. Late Roman representational evidence, including propaganda monuments, gravestones, tombs, and the Exodus fresco, often shows Late Roman soldiers with one or two spears; one tombstone shows a soldier with five shorter javelins. Archaeological evidence, from Roman burials and Scandinavian bog-deposits, shows similar spearheads, though the shafts are rarely preserved. Aside from the traditional mail and scale armour of Roman armies, it also known from archaeological finds that the Goths and Vandals commonly used

lamellar armour Lamellar armour is a type of body armour, made from small rectangular plates (scales or ''lamellae'') of iron or steel, leather ( rawhide), or bronze laced into horizontal rows. Lamellar armour was used over a wide range of time periods in Centr ...

. Constructed of overlapping metal plates laced together, lamellar was more rigid than mail or scale armour and offered considerably greater protection against blunt force trauma from weapons such as maces or axes, commonly used by heavy cavalry of the time. Late Roman representational evidence sometimes still shows Roman swords.Stephenson, I.P., 2001, ''Roman Infantry Equipment'', pp. 61-63. Archaeological evidence shows that the gladius has disappeared; various short ''semispathae'' supplement the older ''pugiones'' while medium-long ''spathae'' replace the medium-short ''gladii''. These have the same straight double-edged blades as older Roman swords. Representational evidence and recovered laths, as well as arrowheads and bracers, show Roman use of composite bows. Representational evidence, recovered bosses, and some complete shields from Dara, show that most Roman infantry and some Roman cavalry carried shields. Although the representational evidence, including gravestones and tombs, usually shows soldiers without armor, the archaeological evidence includes remains of scale armor, mail armor, and helmets.

Experimental evidence

Modern blacksmiths, reenactors, and experimental archaeologists can duplicate Roman Age weapons and armor with Roman Age technology. Basic spearheads (including javelinheads) take about 3 hours of forging time, while swords can take about 37 hours without

pattern welding Pattern welding is the practice in sword and knife making of forming a blade of several metal pieces of differing composition that are forge welding, forge-welded together and twisted and manipulated to form a pattern. Often mistakenly called Dam ...

, or about 110 hours with pattern welding (divided over several days or weeks of labor). Mail armor takes well over 600 hours of forging time.

Military terminology

Via Wulfila's

bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus ...

translation we do know 4th-century Gothic military terms he used to describe the 1st-century

. These terms reflect the Gothic military organization that grew from its Germanic roots under Roman and Central Asian (Hunnic) influence. * ''Drauhtinon'' ("to war")

Individuals

* ''Gadrauhts'' ("soldier, militiaman") * ''Hundafaþs'' (used to describe a Roman centurion) Common Germanic organization of troops of a hundred armed men (in the Scandinavian ''

leidang The institution known as ''leiðangr'' (Old Norse), ''leidang'' ( Norwegian), ''leding'' ( Danish), ''ledung'' ( Swedish), ''expeditio'' (Latin) or sometimes lething (English), was a form of conscription ( mass levy) to organize coastal fleets for s ...

'' it could refer to less than a hundred or several hundred organized and armed men), literally meaning 'group of a hundred'

Units (by size)

* ''Harjis'' ("army")Bennett, William, ''An Introduction to the Gothic Language'', p. 154. * ''Hansa'' (used to describe a Roman cohort) In Germanic terms meaning a band (of warriors); a related term is the later used german: Hanse, nl, Hanze, et, hansa, pl, Hanza, sv, Hansan for the

Hanseatic League The Hanseatic League (; gml, Hanse, , ; german: label= Modern German, Deutsche Hanse) was a medieval commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Central and Northern Europe. Growing from a few North German to ...

Weapons

* ''Hairus'' ("sword")Wright, Joseph, 1892, ''A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 223.

Notes

Bibliography

Hugh Elton Hugh may refer to: * Hugh (given name) Noblemen and clergy French * Hugh the Great (died 956), Duke of the Franks * Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France under his father, Robert II * Hugh, Duke of Alsace (died 895), modern-da ...

, ''Warfare in Roman Europe'', AD 350-425, Oxford: Clarendon, 1996 *

and John Matthews, ''The Goths in the Fourth Century'', Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1991 *

, ''Historiae'', book 27, unknown publisher, unknown year * Joseph Wright, ''A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892 * William Bennett, ''An Introduction to the Gothic Language'', New York: Modern Language Association, 1980 {{Germanic peoples Goths Vandals Burgundians Early Germanic warfare