''Gladius'' () is a Latin word meaning "sword" (of any type), but in its narrow sense it refers to the sword of

ancient Roman In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–50 ...

foot soldiers. Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those of the Greeks, called '' xiphe'' (plural; singular ''xiphos''). From the 3rd century BC, however, the soldiers of the

Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...

adopted a sword based on the

celtic sword Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to: Language and ethnicity *pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia **Celts (modern) *Celtic languages ** Proto-Celtic language *Celtic music *Celtic nations Sports Fo ...

used by the

Celtiberians The Celtiberians were a group of Celts and Celticized peoples inhabiting an area in the central-northeastern Iberian Peninsula during the final centuries BCE. They were explicitly mentioned as being Celts by several classic authors (e.g. Strab ...

Hispania Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hi ...

late into the

Punic Wars The Punic Wars were a series of wars between 264 and 146BC fought between Rome and Carthage. Three conflicts between these states took place on both land and sea across the western Mediterranean region and involved a total of forty-three ye ...

, known in

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

as the ''gladius hispaniensis'', meaning "

Hispanic The term ''Hispanic'' ( es, hispano) refers to people, cultures, or countries related to Spain, the Spanish language, or Hispanidad. The term commonly applies to countries with a cultural and historical link to Spain and to viceroyalties for ...

-type sword". New variants of the gladius, such as the "Mainz gladius" and the "Pompeii gladius", were used from the first century AD and during the early centuries of the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...

; in the third century AD the gladius was replaced by the " spatha". A fully equipped Roman

legionary The Roman legionary (in Latin ''legionarius'', plural ''legionarii'') was a professional heavy infantryman of the Roman army after the Marian reforms. These soldiers would conquer and defend the territories of ancient Rome during the late Republ ...

after the reforms of Gaius Marius was armed with a shield (''

scutum The ''scutum'' (; plural ''scuta'') was a type of shield used among Italic peoples in antiquity, most notably by the army of ancient Rome starting about the fourth century BC. The Romans adopted it when they switched from the military formatio ...

''), one or two javelins ('' pila''), a sword (''gladius''), often a dagger ('' pugio''), and, perhaps in the later empire period, darts (''

plumbata ''Plumbatae'' or ''martiobarbuli'' were lead-weighted Dart (missile)#Thrown darts, darts carried by infantrymen in Ancient history, Antiquity and the Middle Ages. History The first examples seem to have been carried by the Ancient Greece, An ...

e''). Conventionally, soldiers threw ''pila'' to disable the enemy's shields and disrupt enemy formations before engaging in close combat, for which they drew the . A soldier generally led with the shield and thrust with the sword.

Etymology

''Gladius'' is a

masculine noun. The

nominative In grammar, the nominative case ( abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or (in Latin and formal variants of Eng ...

plural of it is . However, in Latin refers to any sword, not only the sword described here. The word appears in literature as early as the plays of

Plautus Titus Maccius Plautus (; c. 254 – 184 BC), commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest Latin literary works to have survived in their entirety. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the g ...

(''Casina'', ''Rudens''). ''Gladius'' is generally believed to be a

Celtic Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to: Language and ethnicity *pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia **Celts (modern) *Celtic languages **Proto-Celtic language *Celtic music *Celtic nations Sports Foo ...

loan in Latin (perhaps via an Etruscan intermediary), derived from ancient Celtic or "sword" (whence modern Welsh "sword", modern Breton , Old Irish /Modern Irish tself perhaps a loan from Welsh the root of the word may survive in the Old Irish verb ''claidid'' "digs, excavates" and anciently attested in the

Gallo-Brittonic The Gallo-Brittonic languages, also known as the P-Celtic languages, are a subdivision of the Celtic languages of Ancient Gaul (both '' celtica'' and ''belgica'') and Celtic Britain, which share certain features. Besides common linguistic inno ...

place name element ''cladia''/''clado'' "ditch, trench, valley hollow"). Modern English words derived from include

gladiator A gladiator ( la, gladiator, "swordsman", from , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gla ...

("swordsman") and ''

gladiolus ''Gladiolus'' (from Latin, the diminutive of ''gladius'', a sword) is a genus of perennial cormous flowering plants in the iris family (Iridaceae). It is sometimes called the 'sword lily', but is usually called by its generic name (plural ''g ...

'' ("little sword", from the

diminutive A diminutive is a root word that has been modified to convey a slighter degree of its root meaning, either to convey the smallness of the object or quality named, or to convey a sense of intimacy or endearment. A ( abbreviated ) is a word-form ...

form of ''gladius''), a

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants t ...

with sword-shaped leaves.

Predecessors and origins

Cogotas-II (dagas)-Segunda Edad del Hierro

According to

Polybius Polybius (; grc-gre, Πολύβιος, ; ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , which covered the period of 264–146 BC and the Punic Wars in detail. Polybius is important for his analysis of the mixed ...

, the sword used by the Roman army during the

Battle of Telamon The Battle of Telamon was fought between the Roman Republic and an alliance of Celtic tribes in 225 BC. The Romans, led by the consuls Gaius Atilius Regulus and Lucius Aemilius Papus, defeated the Celts led by the Gaesatae kings Concolitanus an ...

in 225 BC, though deemed superior to the cumbersome Gallic swords, was mainly useful to thrust. These thrusting swords used before the adoption of the Gladius were possibly based on the Greek ''

xiphos The ''xiphos'' ( grc, ξίφος ; plural ''xiphe'', grc, ξίφη ) is a double-edged, one-handed Iron Age straight shortsword used by the ancient Greeks. It was a secondary battlefield weapon for the Greek armies after the dory or javelin. ...

''. Later, during the

Battle of Cannae The Battle of Cannae () was a key engagement of the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and Carthage, fought on 2 August 216 BC near the ancient village of Cannae in Apulia, southeast Italy. The Carthaginians and their allies, led by Ha ...

in 216 BC, they found Hannibal's Celtiberian

mercenaries A mercenary, sometimes Pseudonym, also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a memb ...

wielding swords that excelled at both slashing and thrusting. A text attributed to Polybius describes the adoption of this design by the Romans even before the end of the

war War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular o ...

, which canonical Polybius reaffirms by calling the later Roman sword ''gladius hispaniensis'' in

and ''iberiké machaira'' in

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

. It is believed

Scipio Africanus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , ; 236/235–183 BC) was a Roman general and statesman, most notable as one of the main architects of Rome's victory against Carthage in the Second Punic War. Often regarded as one of the best military co ...

was the promoter of the change after the Battle of Cartagena in 209 BC, after which he set the inhabitants to produce weapons for the Roman army. In 70 BC, both

Claudius Quadrigarius Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius was a Roman historian. Little is known of Q. Claudius Quadrigarius's life, but he probably lived in the . Work Quadrigarius's annals spanned at least 23 books. They began with the conquest of Rome by the Gauls (BC), re ...

and Livy relate the story of Titus Manlius Torquatus using a "Hispanic sword" (''gladius Hispanus'') in a duel with a Gaul in 361 BC. However, this has been traditionally considered a terminological

anachronism An anachronism (from the Greek , 'against' and , 'time') is a chronological inconsistency in some arrangement, especially a juxtaposition of people, events, objects, language terms and customs from different time periods. The most common ty ...

caused by the long established naming convention. Still, some believe the Celtiberian sword was adopted after encounters with Carthaginian mercenaries of that nationality during the

First Punic War The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Roman Republic, Rome and Ancient Carthage, Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years ...

(264-241 BC), not the second. In any case, the ''gladius hispaniensis'' became particularly known in 200 BC during the

Second Macedonian War The Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC) was fought between Macedon, led by Philip V of Macedon, and Rome, allied with Pergamon and Rhodes. Philip was defeated and was forced to abandon all possessions in southern Greece, Thrace and Asia Min ...

, in which Macedonian soldiers became horrified at what Roman swords could do after an early cavalry skirmish. It has been suggested that the sword used by Roman cavalrymen was different from the infantry model, but most academics have discarded this view. Arguments for the Celtiberian source of the weapon have been reinforced in recent decades by discovery of early Roman ''gladii'' that seem to highlight that they were copies of Celtiberian models. The weapon developed in Iberia after La Tène I models, which were adapted to traditional Celtiberian techniques during the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC. These weapons are quite original in their design, so that they cannot be confused with Gallic types. As for the origin of the word ''gladius'', one theory proposes the borrowing of the word from *''kladi''- during the Gallic wars, relying on the principle that ''K'' often became ''G'' in Latin.

Ennius Quintus Ennius (; c. 239 – c. 169 BC) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce, Apulia, (Ancient Calabri ...

attests the word ''gladius'' may have replaced ''ensis'', which until then was used mainly by poets.

Manufacture

By the time of the

, which flourished during the

Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age ( Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age ( Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly ...

, steel and the steel-making process was not unknown to the classical world. Pure iron is relatively soft, but pure iron is never found in nature. Natural iron ore contains various impurities in solid solution, which harden the reduced metal by producing irregular-shaped metallic crystals. The ''gladius'' was generally made out of steel. In Roman times, workers reduced ore in a

bloomery A bloomery is a type of metallurgical furnace once used widely for smelting iron from its oxides. The bloomery was the earliest form of smelter capable of smelting iron. Bloomeries produce a porous mass of iron and slag called a ''bloom' ...

furnace. The resulting pieces were called ''blooms'', which they further worked to remove slag inclusions from the porous surface. A recent metallurgical study of two

Etruria Etruria () was a region of Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what are now most of Tuscany, northern Lazio, and northern and western Umbria. Etruscan Etruria The ancient people of Etruria are identified as Etruscans. Thei ...

n swords, one in the form of a Greek ''

kopis The term kopis ( grc, Κόπις) in Ancient Greece could describe a heavy knife with a forward-curving blade, primarily used as a tool for cutting meat, for ritual slaughter and animal sacrifice, or refer to a single edged cutting or "cut and ...

'' from 7th century BC

Vetulonia Vetulonia, formerly called Vetulonium ( Etruscan: ''Vatluna''), was an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, the site of which is probably occupied by the modern village of Vetulonia, which up to 1887 bore the name of Colonnata and Colonna di Buriano: t ...

, the other in the form of a ''gladius Hispaniensis'' from 4th century BC

Clusium Clusium ( grc-gre, Κλύσιον, ''Klýsion'', or , ''Kloúsion''; Umbrian:''Camars'') was an ancient city in Italy, one of several found at the site. The current municipality of Chiusi ( Tuscany) partly overlaps this Roman walled city. The R ...

(

Chiusi Chiusi ( Etruscan: ''Clevsin''; Umbrian: ''Camars''; Ancient Greek: ''Klysion'', ''Κλύσιον''; Latin: ''Clusium'') is a town and '' comune'' in the province of Siena, Tuscany, Italy. History Clusium (''Clevsin'' in Etruscan) was ...

), gives insight concerning the manufacture of Roman swords. The Chiusi sword comes from Romanized ''etruria''; thus, regardless of the names of the forms (which the authors do not identify), the authors believe the process was continuous from the Etruscans to the Romans. The Vetulonian sword was crafted by the

pattern welding Pattern welding is the practice in sword and knife making of forming a blade of several metal pieces of differing composition that are forge welding, forge-welded together and twisted and manipulated to form a pattern. Often mistakenly called Dam ...

process from five blooms reduced at a temperature of 1163 °C. Five strips of varying carbon content were created. A central core of the sword contained the highest: 0.15–0.25% carbon. On its edges were placed four strips of low-carbon steel, 0.05–0.07%, and the whole thing was welded together by forging on the pattern of hammer blows. A blow increased the temperature sufficiently to produce a friction weld at that spot. Forging continued until the steel was cold, producing some central annealing. The sword was long. The Chiusian sword was created from a single bloom by forging from a temperature of 1237 °C. The carbon content increased from 0.05–0.08% at the back side of the sword to 0.35–0.4% on the blade, from which the authors deduce that some form of

carburization Carburising, carburizing (chiefly American English), or carburisation is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon while the metal is heated in the presence of a carbon-bearing material, such as charcoal or carbon monoxide. ...

may have been used. The sword was long and was characterized by a wasp-waist close to the hilt. Romans continued to forge swords, both as composites and from single pieces. Inclusions of sand and rust weakened the two swords in the study, and no doubt limited the strength of swords during the Roman period.

Description

The word ''gladius'' acquired a general meaning as any type of sword. This use appears as early as the 1st century AD in the ''Biography of Alexander the Great'' by

Quintus Curtius Rufus Quintus Curtius Rufus () was a Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', "Histories of Alexander the Great", or more fully ''Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedon ...

. The republican authors, however, appear to mean a specific type of sword, which is now known from archaeology to have had variants. ''Gladii'' were two-edged for cutting and had a tapered point for stabbing during thrusting. A solid grip was provided by a knobbed hilt added on, possibly with ridges for the fingers. Blade strength was achieved by welding together strips, in which case the sword had a channel down the center, or by fashioning a single piece of high-carbon steel, rhomboidal in cross-section. The owner's name was often engraved or punched on the blade. The

hilt The hilt (rarely called a haft or shaft) of a knife, dagger, sword, or bayonet is its handle, consisting of a guard, grip and pommel. The guard may contain a crossguard or quillons. A tassel or sword knot may be attached to the guard or pommel ...

of a Roman sword was the ''capulus''. It was often ornate, especially the sword-hilts of officers and dignitaries. Stabbing was a very efficient technique, as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly. However, the ''gladius'' in some circumstances was used for cutting or slashing, as is indicated by

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...

's account of the Macedonian Wars, wherein the Macedonian soldiers were horrified to see dismembered bodies. Though the primary infantry attack was thrusting at stomach height, they were trained to take any advantage, such as slashing at kneecaps beneath the shield wall. The ''gladius'' was sheathed in a

scabbard A scabbard is a sheath for holding a sword, knife, or other large blade. As well, rifles may be stored in a scabbard by horse riders. Military cavalry and cowboys had scabbards for their saddle ring carbine rifles and lever-action rifles on the ...

mounted on a belt or shoulder strap. Some say the soldier reached across his body to draw it, and others claim that the position of the shield made this method of drawing impossible. A

centurion A centurion (; la, centurio , . la, centuriones, label=none; grc-gre, κεντυρίων, kentyríōn, or ) was a position in the Roman army during classical antiquity, nominally the commander of a century (), a military unit of around 80 ...

wore it on the opposite side as a mark of distinction. Towards the end of the 2nd century AD and during the 3rd century the '' spatha'' gradually took the place of the ''gladius'' in the Roman legions.

Types

Several different designs were used; among collectors and

historical reenactors Historical reenactment (or re-enactment) is an educational or entertainment activity in which mainly amateur hobbyists and history enthusiasts dress in historic uniforms or costumes and follow a plan to recreate aspects of a historical event or ...

, the three primary kinds are known as the ''Mainz gladius'', the ''Fulham gladius'', and the ''Pompeii gladius'' (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, the ''gladius Hispaniensis''. The differences between these varieties are subtle. The original Hispanic sword, which was used during the republic, had a slight "wasp-waist" or "leaf-blade" curvature. The Mainz variety came into use on the frontier in the early empire. It kept the curvature, but shortened and widened the blade and made the point triangular. At home, the less battle-effective Pompeii version came into use. It eliminated the curvature, lengthened the blade, and diminished the point. The Fulham was a compromise, with straight edges and a long point.

''Gladius Hispaniensis''

''The Gladius Hispaniensis'' was a Roman sword used from around 216 BC until 20 BC. Its blade had a length of , and the sword was long. The width of the sword was . It was the largest and heaviest of the ''gladii'', weighing kg or . This gladius was also the earliest and longest blade. It had a pronounced leaf-shape.

''Mainz Gladius''

''The

Mainz Gladius The Mainz Gladius or Sword of Tiberius is a famous ancient Roman sword and sheath that was found in the Rhine near Mainz in Germany. Since 1866 it has been part of the British Museum's collection, when it was given to the museum by the philanthrop ...

'' is made of heavily corroded iron and a sheath made of tinned and gilded bronze. The blade was long and in width. The sword was long. The sword weighed . The point of the sword was more triangular than the Gladius Hispaniensis. The Mainz Gladius still had wasp-waisted curves. The decoration on the scabbard illustrates the ceding of military victory to

Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...

by Tiberius after a successful Alpine campaign. Augustus is semi-nude, and sits in the pose of Jupiter, flanked by the Roman gods of Victory and Mars Ultor, while

Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...

, in military dress, presents Augustus with a statuette of Victory.

''Fulham Gladius''

The ''Fulham gladius'' or ''Mainz-Fulham gladius'' was a Roman sword that was used after Aulus Plautius' invasion of Britain in 43 AD. The Romans used it until the end of the 1st century. The ''Fulham gladius'' has a triangular tip. The length of the blade is . The length of the sword is . The width of the blade is . The swords weighs (wooden hilt). A full size replica can be seen at

Fulham Palace Fulham Palace, in Fulham, London, previously in the former English county of Middlesex, is a Grade I listed building with medieval origins and was formerly the principal residence of the Bishop of London. The site was the country home of th ...

Fulham Fulham () is an area of the London Borough of Hammersmith & Fulham in West London, England, southwest of Charing Cross. It lies on the north bank of the River Thames, bordering Hammersmith, Kensington and Chelsea. The area faces Wandswor ...

''Pompeii gladius''

The ''Pompeii gladius'' was named by modern historians after the Roman town of

Pompeii Pompeii (, ) was an ancient city located in what is now the ''comune'' of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at Boscoreale, Stabiae), was burie ...

. This type of ''gladius'' was by far the most popular one. Four instances of the sword type were found in Pompeii, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. This is the shortest of the ''gladii''. It is often confused with the '' spatha'', which was a longer, slashing weapon used initially by mounted ''auxilians''. Over the years, the Pompeii got longer, and these later versions are called semi-''spathes''. The length of the blade was . The length of the sword is . The width of the blade is . The sword weighs (wooden hilt).

Popular Culture

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features a gladius sword used by Maximus. *

Power Rangers Wild Force ''Power Rangers Wild Force'' is a television series and the tenth season of Power Rangers. It is also the anniversary season of the ''Power Rangers'' franchise, based on the 25th Super Sentai series ''Hyakujuu Sentai Gaoranger'', which itself w ...

features the Blue Ranger Max Cooper wielding the Sword of Pardolis, a gladius-themed weapon with a similarity to his

Giraffe The giraffe is a large African hoofed mammal belonging to the genus ''Giraffa''. It is the tallest living terrestrial animal and the largest ruminant on Earth. Traditionally, giraffes were thought to be one species, '' Giraffa camelopardal ...

Zord.

Notes

This is only true for the

nominative case In grammar, the nominative case ( abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or (in Latin and formal variants of Eng ...

; For more information, see the

Latin declension Latin declension is the set of patterns according to which Latin words are declined—that is, have their endings altered to show grammatical case, number and gender. Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are declined (verbs are conjugated), and a gi ...

page.

References

Significant Contributions in the Study of European Arms and Armor
bibliography by the Arms and Armor Society of America.

* John William Humphrey,

John Peter Oleson John Peter Oleson (born 1946) is a Canadian classical archaeologist and historian of ancient technology. His main interests are the Roman Near East, maritime archaeology (particularly Roman harbours), and ancient technology, especially hydrauli ...

, Andrew Neil Sherwood
Greek and Roman Technology: a sourcebook
*

External links

The articles in the links below often differ both in theory and in detail. They should not necessarily be understood as fully professional articles but should be appreciated for their presentational value.

Pictures of ancient swords

at the Roman Numismatic Gallery (romancoins.info)

Reenactments, reconstructions, experimental archaeology

photos of historical reconstructionists drawing and holding gladii. * * *

Articles on the history or manufacture of the sword

* Ross Cowan
Gladius Gallicus
an introduction to the Gallic-type swords used by the Romans prior to the adoption of the ''gladius Hispaniensis''

(myArmoury.com article) * Janet Lang
Study of the Metallography of Some Roman Swords
* Niko Silvester

* Richard F. Burton, ttp://www.jrbooksonline.com/HTML-docs/Book_of_the_Sword.htm The Sword Amongst the Barbarians (Early Roman Empire).*Taylor, Michael J. "Sword of the Republic: The Gladius Hispaniensis." Classic Arms and Militaria Magazine. October 2011. {{Swords by region Ancient Roman legionary equipment Blade weapons Roman swords