George Maxwell Robeson (March 16, 1829 – September 27, 1897) was an

American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...

politician A politician is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking an elected office in government. Politicians propose, support, reject and create laws that govern the land and by an extension of its people. Broadly speaking, ...

and

lawyer A lawyer is a person who practices law. The role of a lawyer varies greatly across different legal jurisdictions. A lawyer can be classified as an advocate, attorney, barrister, canon lawyer, civil law notary, counsel, counselor, solicit ...

from

New Jersey New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delawa ...

. A

brigadier general Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointe ...

in the

New Jersey Militia The New Jersey Line was a formation within the Continental Army. A "New Jersey Line" was the quota of numbered infantry regiments that the Congress of the Confederacy assigned to New Jersey at various times. New Jersey Line, 1776 The first two ...

during the

American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and t ...

, he served as

Secretary of the Navy The secretary of the Navy (or SECNAV) is a statutory officer () and the head (chief executive officer) of the Department of the Navy, a military department (component organization) within the United States Department of Defense. By law, the se ...

, appointed by President

Ulysses S. Grant Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant ; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was an American military officer and politician who served as the 18th president of the United States from 1869 to 1877. As Commanding General, he led the Union A ...

, from 1869 to 1877. A member of the

Republican Party Republican Party is a name used by many political parties around the world, though the term most commonly refers to the United States' Republican Party. Republican Party may also refer to: Africa * Republican Party (Liberia) *Republican Party ...

, he also served two terms as a U.S. Representative for New Jersey from 1879 to 1883. Robeson, a native of New Jersey, graduated from

Princeton University Princeton University is a private research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the ...

at the young age of 18. Robeson studied law and passed the bar in 1850. Practicing law, Robeson diligently worked his way through the legal profession and in 1858 he was appointed a public prosecutor for Camden County. During the

Robeson associated with the Republican Party and was a member of the New Jersey Sanitary Commission. Appointed Brigadier General by Governor Charles S. Olden, Robeson worked to recruit enlistments to fight for the Union. After the war in 1867, Robeson was appointed New Jersey Attorney General by Gov. Marcus L. Ward. Robeson, as Attorney General, gained national attention after successfully prosecuting Bridget Durgan for the brutal murder of Mrs. Coriell. Supported by New Jersey Senator A.G. Cattell, Robeson was appointed Secretary of Navy by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1869 after Sec.

Adolph E. Borie Adolph Edward Borie (November 25, 1809 – February 5, 1880) was a United States merchant and politician who briefly served (1869) as Secretary of the Navy in the Ulysses S. Grant administration. A native of Philadelphia, Borie was born into th ...

had resigned office. His tenure lasted about seven and a half years, second in length only, to that of

Gideon Welles Gideon Welles (July 1, 1802 – February 11, 1878), nicknamed "Father Neptune", was the United States Secretary of the Navy from 1861 to 1869, a cabinet post he was awarded after supporting Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 election. Although opposed ...

during the 19th century. He was known to be a hot-tempered, industrious administrator and through his departmental leadership was able to contain the established Naval officer hierarchy. Having limited Congressional funding, he supported and developed the early stages of

submarine A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely op ...

and

torpedo A modern torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target. Historically, ...

technology, in keeping U.S. harbors safe from foreign attack and secured $50,000 in Congressional funding for the 1871 ''Polaris'' expedition led by

Charles Francis Hall Charles Francis Hall ( – November 8, 1871) was an American Arctic explorer, best known for his collection of Inuit testimony regarding the 1845 Franklin Expedition and the suspicious circumstances surrounding his death while leading th ...

. The U.S. Navy, however, was not able to keep pace with the modernization of industrial European navies. Robeson headed the investigation about the controversial death of Hall after the return of the shipwrecked crew in 1873. Robeson supported President Grant and the Radical Republican

Reconstruction Reconstruction may refer to: Politics, history, and sociology * Reconstruction (law), the transfer of a company's (or several companies') business to a new company *''Perestroika'' (Russian for "reconstruction"), a late 20th century Soviet Unio ...

laws that supported the citizenship and voting rights of

African American African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from sub-Saharan Africa. The term "African American" generally denotes descendants of ens ...

freedmen. Under Robeson, the U.S. Navy constructed the United States' first two propelled torpedo warships. In 1874, Robeson responded to the naval threat imposed by

Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...

during the

Virginius Affair The ''Virginius'' Affair was a diplomatic dispute that occurred from October 1873 to February 1875 between the United States, the United Kingdom, and Spain (then in control of Cuba), during the Ten Years' War. ''Virginius'' was a fast American ...

; having implemented U.S. Naval resurgence, however, Congress refused to pay for the completion of the five new ships. Robeson served briefly as both Secretary of Navy and as ad interim

Secretary of War The secretary of war was a member of the U.S. president's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War", had been appointed to serve the Congress of the ...

after Secretary of War William W. Belknap abruptly resigned in 1876. Robeson was the subject of two Congressional investigations in 1876 and 1878 on profiting and bribery charges from shipbuilding contracts but was exonerated for lack of material evidence. Elected in 1878, Representative for New Jersey, U.S. Congressman Robeson served as minority leader of the Republican Party. Robeson's grandfather was

George C. Maxwell George Clifford Maxwell (March 16, 1768 – May 26, 1835) was a U.S. representative from New Jersey, father of John Patterson Bryan Maxwell. Maxwell's nephew George M. Robeson George Maxwell Robeson (March 16, 1829 – September 27, 1897) was ...

and he was the nephew of

John Patterson Bryan Maxwell John Patterson Bryan Maxwell (September 3, 1804, Flemington, New Jersey - November 14, 1845, Belvidere, New Jersey) was an American Whig Party politician who represented New Jersey in the United States House of Representatives from 1837 to 1839 an ...

, both having represented New Jersey in the House of Representatives. Defeated from office by Democrat

Thomas M. Ferrell Thomas Merrill Ferrell (June 20, 1844 – October 20, 1916) was an American Democratic Party politician who represented New Jersey's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives for one term from 1883 to 1885. Born ...

in a bitter highly contested 1882 election campaign, Robeson was left $60,000 in debt and forced to sell his Washington D.C. property. As a result of his financial troubles, his wife and family abandoned him while traveling abroad. Robeson moved to Trenton, resumed his law practice, and lived a modest lifestyle until his death in 1897. Although Robeson showed decisive action during the

while Secretary of the Navy, his reputation was marred by allegations of corruption during his tenure.

Early life

George M. Robeson was born on March 16, 1829, in

Oxford Furnace Oxford Furnace is a historic blast furnace on Washington Avenue, near the intersection with Belvidere Avenue, in Oxford, New Jersey, Oxford, Oxford Township, New Jersey, Oxford Township, Warren County, New Jersey, Warren County, New Jersey. The fu ...

, near Belvidere in

Warren County Warren County is the name of fourteen counties in the USA. Some are named after General Joseph Warren, who was killed in the Battle of Bunker Hill in the American Revolutionary War: * Warren County, Georgia * Warren County, Illinois * Warren County ...

.Chicago Daily Tribune (Sep 28, 1897), ''George M. Robeson Dies''Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, ''Robeson, George Maxwell (1829–1897)'' Robeson's family was of Scottish origin and he was a descendant of Andrew Robeson, the surveyor-general of New Jersey in 1668.The Biographical Dictionary of American Biography (1906), p. 38 His father was Philadelphia Judge William Penn Robeson and his mother was the daughter of U.S. Congressman

, who served in the 12th U.S. Congress from 1811 to 1813 representing Hunterdon, New Jersey. His brother William P. Robeson, Jr. was a

brevetted In many of the world's military establishments, a brevet ( or ) was a warrant giving a commissioned officer a higher rank title as a reward for gallantry or meritorious conduct but may not confer the authority, precedence, or pay of real rank. ...

Brigadier general Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointe ...

in the Union Army. Robeson was the nephew of U.S. Congressman

.The Political Graveyard, ''Robeson, George Maxwell (1829–1897)'' Robeson gained a scholarly reputation by having graduated from

at the young age of 18 in 1847. Upon graduation, he studied law in Newark in Chief Justice Hornblower's law office.Biographical Dictionary of America, 138 He graduated and was admitted to the bar in 1850. He was admitted as a legal counselor in 1854. He initially set up his law practice in Newark, but then moved his practice to

Jersey City Jersey City is the second-most populous city in the U.S. state of New Jersey, after Newark.Camden County.

Civil War

During the Civil War, Robeson was appointed a

in the

by the

Governor of New Jersey The governor of New Jersey is the head of government of New Jersey. The office of governor is an elected position with a four-year term. There is a two consecutive term term limit, with no limitation on non-consecutive terms. The official r ...

. Robeson did not serve in active duty during the war.

Miller Center The Miller Center is a nonpartisan affiliate of the University of Virginia that specializes in United States presidential scholarship, public policy, and political history. History The Miller Center was founded in 1975 through the philanthrop ...

Attorney General New Jersey (1867–1869)

Robeson served as the

Attorney General of New Jersey The attorney general of New Jersey is a member of the executive cabinet of the state and oversees the Department of Law and Public Safety. The office is appointed by the governor of New Jersey, confirmed by the New Jersey Senate, and term limited ...

from 1867 to 1869. He resigned as Attorney General on June 22, 1869, to become United States Secretary of the Navy.

Coriell murder trial

In May, 1867 Robeson successfully prosecuted Bridget Durgan of brutally murdering Mary Ellen Coriell, Coriell's wife.New York Times (June 1, 1867),
The Coriell Murder
', Accessed on 02-22-2013 Robeson was able to gain a conviction of Durgan on

circumstantial evidence Circumstantial evidence is evidence that relies on an inference to connect it to a conclusion of fact—such as a fingerprint at the scene of a crime. By contrast, direct evidence supports the truth of an assertion directly—i.e., without need ...

. Durgan, who had an earlier criminal record, had murdered Mrs. Coriell by stabbing her several times with a kitchen knife, believing that she would take over as wife of Coriell and would raise Mrs. Coriell's child. Robeson had stated that the blood on Durgan's dress was the blood of Mrs. Coriell after a violent struggle to save her life had taken place. Robeson told the jury not to consider Durgan as a woman when making a verdict. Throughout Robeson's closing arguments, Durgan held her head low and constantly had a handkerchief to her eyes. Robeson was applauded by the courtroom audience after he finished giving his closing arguments. The jury only took one hour to deliberate before reaching a verdict. Durgan was convicted by the jury of murder, sentenced to death, and hanged on August 30, 1867.

Secretary of the Navy (1869–1877)

President Ulysses S. Grant, without public knowledge, appointed George M. Robeson Secretary of the Navy on June 25, 1869, having replaced Sec.

, who resigned on the same day.Paullin (1913), ''Naval Institute proceedings'', Volume 39, p. 751 Borie had found the duties of running the Navy Department demanding and he decided to resign. Upon Robeson's appointment to office, nobody outside of New Jersey knew who he was. Robeson formally took office on June 26, 1869. This would become one of the longest-held cabinet Naval secretary positions, with the exception of Sec.

. He would serve until March 12, 1877, at the end of President Grant's second term in office and at the beginning of President Hayes's administration. Robeson had no previous affiliation with naval shipbuilding, however, he was familiar with the ocean lifestyle, having grown up in New Jersey. His appointment to the Secretary of Navy was influenced by Sen. A. G. Cattell of New Jersey. Robeson, a young man around 40 upon assuming office, was considered an impatient administrator, high-strung, and strong in physical prowess. When Congress did not authorize the construction of new ships, Robeson used monies meant for the repair of older ships to make newer ships from almost completely new materials, keeping the name of the older ships, and often making ships larger and replacing wooden hulls with iron.Charles Oscar Paullin (2012) ''Paullin's History of Naval Administration 1775–1911'', pg 1874 Congress and reformers were critical of Robeson overstepping the law in terms of making new ships by "repairing" older ships. Although he was criticized for overhauling 15 to 16 ironclads costing $4,000,000, navy historian Charles Oscar Paullin stated that under the circumstances of the Virginius Incident that took place in 1873, Robeson's overhauls were "proper and advisable".

Departmental control (1869)

Robeson's predecessor Sec. Borie, Grant's first appointment, had let the Navy Department be run by Rear Admiral David D. Porter.Paullin (1913), ''Naval Institute proceedings'', Volume 39, pp. 748–749 Borie apparently did not have any interest in running the Navy Department and let Porter have unprecedented authority. All orders from the Naval Department had to go through Porter's office to be approved. Porter was an autocratic administrator, who made as many as 45 "arbitrary and extravagant" changes in only two months in the Navy Department. According to historian Paullin, Robeson, however, after his appointment in June 1869, assumed strong leadership of the department, and Porter's dogmatic control immediately ended.Paullin (1913), ''Naval Institute proceedings'', Volume 39, p. 750 Sec. Robeson was not willing to be Porter's subordinate, as Borie had been. Porter was almost barred from the Navy Department Office building, only visiting four times during Robeson's tenure. On November 16, 1870, Robeson wrote Porter a letter specifically stating Porter's limited authority, and Porter was told to report regularly to Robeson's Naval Office in writing. According to historian Donald Chisholm, both Rear Admiral Porter and Rear Admiral

Daniel Ammen Daniel Ammen (May 15, 1820 – July 11, 1898) was a U.S. naval officer during the American Civil War and the postbellum period, as well as a prolific author. His last assignment in the Navy was Chief of the Bureau of Navigation. Early care ...

, a close friend to President Grant, influenced Robeson's decisions as Secretary of Navy.Donald Chisholm (2001), ''Waiting for Dead Men's Shoes, Origins and Development of the U.S. Navy's Officer Personnel System'' p 337 Robeson's first annual report to Congress in 1869 was heavily influenced by Rear Admiral Porter.

Norfolk riot (1870)

During the

Reconstruction Era The Reconstruction era was a period in American history following the American Civil War (1861–1865) and lasting until approximately the Compromise of 1877. During Reconstruction, attempts were made to rebuild the country after the bloo ...

, Secretary of the Navy Robeson arrived in

Norfolk Norfolk () is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in East Anglia in England. It borders Lincolnshire to the north-west, Cambridgeshire to the west and south-west, and Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the Nor ...

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are ...

on November 1, 1870, and he was saluted by naval warships in the harbor.New York Times (November 7, 1870), ''The Riot at Norfolk, Va.''; Washington Chronicle (November 2, 1870) His purpose was to speak for and support Republican Rep. James H. Platt's reelection to the U.S. Congress. During the stump speech ceremony in honor of Platt, Robeson forcefully advocated Republican Radical Reconstruction. Robeson, in his scholarly way, on the steps of the Norfolk City Hall, spoke on the Republican Party's achievements of successfully defeating the Southern Rebellion; ending the "barbarism of slavery"; elevating millions of

freedmen by giving them citizenship, full suffrage and education; completing the

Pacific Railroad The Pacific Railroad (not to be confused with Union Pacific Railroad) was a railroad based in Missouri. It was a predecessor of both the Missouri Pacific Railroad and St. Louis-San Francisco Railway. The Pacific was chartered by Missouri in 1849 ...

; reducing taxes, and paying off the Civil War debt. Robeson, however, was abruptly interrupted by a Conservative who asked, "If the Republicans have done so much for the slaves, what have they done for their masters?" Robeson quickly replied that the Republican Party, after the war, had been very gracious to the South by limiting the punishment of hanging, "having destroyed the cause of the crime, to let the crime itself go unpunished". A riot broke out, eggs were thrown, and guns were fired. Several persons were wounded as the meeting broke up, but Robeson was unharmed.

''Polaris'' expedition (1871)

The ''Polaris'' expedition, commissioned by Secretary of Navy Robeson, was the United States' first serious attempt at arctic exploration to be the first nation to reach the

North Pole The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True North Pole to distinguish from the Ma ...

. On June 29, 1871, at 7 pm, , sailed from the New York Naval Yard, under the authority of Captain

.Tyson (1874), pp. 107, 108 Sec. of Navy Robeson and Hall, who was on his third arctic expedition, had lobbied Congress successfully to fund the expedition. Robeson had written specific instructions on the goals of the mission and implemented a hierarchy of command for when Hall was injured or killed.Tyson (1874), p. 108 Robeson directed the course of the expedition, outfitted for two and one-half years. Robeson ordered anything that was found on the expedition would be the property of the U.S. Government, that monuments would be erected on the journey, records and general conditions of the expedition would be kept, and food caches would be established. ''Polaris'' was supplied with every scientific instrument needed for such a dangerous and ambitious expedition.Tyson (1874), pp. 108–109 cfhall harpers

While traveling west of

Greenland Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland ...

under good weather, ''Polaris'' broke a sailing record to the highest point northward at 82°29'N. In October 1871, the expedition established a winter camp on Thank God Bay, to prepare to reach the North Pole by dogsled. On October 24, upon his return from an exploratory dogsled party, Captain Hall fell sick after drinking a cup of coffee. Historians now believe Hall was probably murdered by crew member

Emil Bessels Emil Bessels (2 June 1847 – 30 March 1888) was a German zoologist, entomologist, physician, and Arctic researcher who is best known for his controversial role in the attempted but ill-fated ''Polaris'' expedition to the North Pole in 187 ...

, who poisoned him with arsenic.Parry (2001), p. 415 Two weeks later, Captain Hall died, and Sidney O. Buddington was put in charge of the expedition, according to Robeson's instructions. Under Buddington's authority, discipline on the expedition declined, as the crew was allowed to carry weapons and stay up all night. Buddington himself raided the ship's medical supply of alcohol and was known to have been drunk.Parry (2001), pp. 269, 285 On June 2, 1872, after an unsuccessful attempt to reach the North Pole, the expedition turned south to head back to the New York Navy Yard.Parry (2001), p. 155 Having been caught in an ice pack, 19 crew members were separated from the ship on an ice floe and floated 1,800 miles before being rescued.Mowat (1967), p. 162 The remaining crew onboard the ship was forced to winter off Greenland in October 1872, with ''Polaris'' being broken down into two ships. Setting out on the ocean, the remaining expedition crew was rescued by a whaling ship on June 3, 1873. Upon the crew's return, Robeson immediately opened a naval investigation on June 5, 1873, inquiring into Hall's death and Buddington's lack of leadership and crew discipline.Parry (2001), p. 265 Captain Hall's journals and letters had been tampered with and destroyed; they may have contained information that was harmful to both Buddington and Bessels. The investigation under Robeson did not charge Bessels with Hall's murder, although there was circumstantial evidence Bessels did murder Hall. However, the entire ''Polaris'' expedition crew was exonerated. In 1968, Captain Hall's body was exhumed and modern scientific testing revealed he had been poisoned by arsenic before his sudden sickness and death.Berton (1988), p. 390 Bessels, who was in charge of Hall's medical care, is now believed to have most likely murdered Hall since Bessels had patriotic ties with his mother country Germany.Berton (1988), p. 392 Although Robeson's final report said Hall had died a "natural" death, certain information may have been suppressed, to prevent scandal. Captain Hall, before his death, named

Robeson Channel Robeson Channel () is a body of water lying between Greenland and Canada's northernmost island, Ellesmere Island. It is the most northerly part of Nares Strait, linking Hall Basin to the south with the Arctic Ocean to the north. The Newman Fjord ...

in honor of Secretary Robeson.

Submarine and torpedo testing (1869–1875)

During Sec. Robeson's tenure, submarine, and torpedo technologies were tested by the U.S. Navy.''Undersea Warfare'' (Summer 2008), Issue 38 , an experimental hand-cranked submarine owned by Oliver Halstead, had been semi-officially successfully tested in 1866 by

Thomas W. Sweeny Thomas William Sweeny (December 25, 1820 – April 10, 1892) was an Irish-American soldier who served in the Mexican–American War and then was a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Birth and early years Sweeny was b ...

. However, the U.S. Navy did nothing with the ship until October 1869, when the ship was examined and recommended to Robeson by Cmdrs. C. Melancthon Smith, Augustus L. Case, and Edmund O. Matthews. Robeson appointed another committee to report on the boat's merit. After the second committee gave a favorable review, Robeson and Halstead signed a contract on October 29, 1869, to purchase the submarine for $50,000. Halstead, who contracted to test the submarine, was murdered, and the testing of ''Intelligent Whale'' was stalled for over a year. Because of lax security, in 1872, British officer Rear Admiral Edward Augustus Inglefield sneaked into the New York Navy Yard and inspected the secluded vessel moored on a wharf. On September 18, 1872, the ship was officially tested by the U.S. Navy; it took on water due to a defective hatch seal. Although deemed a failure, ''Intelligent Whale'' represented the U.S. Navy's interest and experimentation in "improving weapons systems" during the 1870s. The first submarine to have been purchased and tested by the U.S. Navy was in 1863, during the

.The Navy and Marine Living History Association
The story of the Alligator
/ref> The testing of

es proved to be more successful. In July 1869 Robeson established the United States Naval Torpedo Station on Goat Island in the harbor of

Newport, Rhode Island Newport is an American seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island. It is located in Narragansett Bay, approximately southeast of Providence, south of Fall River, Massachusetts, south of Boston, and northeast of New Yor ...

. The goal was to find inexpensive and effective underwater defense weapons, including experimentation with torpedoes and torpedo equipment, explosives, and electrical equipment. Robeson gave the station the task of making the self-propelled "Fish" torpedo, modeled after the

Whitehead torpedo The Whitehead torpedo was the first self-propelled or "locomotive" torpedo ever developed. It was perfected in 1866 by Robert Whitehead from a rough design conceived by Giovanni Luppis of the Austro-Hungarian Navy in Fiume. It was driven by a t ...

developed by Englishman Robert Whitehead.The U.S. Navy Fish Torpedo
/ref> USS Alarm (1874-1898)

Robeson instructed that the torpedo must be able to go underwater for a considerable distance, at a fair speed, maintaining a straight course, while remaining submerged. The torpedo was long, weighed , carried of guncotton explosives, and had a range of . Compressed air drove the diameter, four-bladed

propeller A propeller (colloquially often called a screw if on a ship or an airscrew if on an aircraft) is a device with a rotating hub and radiating blades that are set at a pitch to form a helical spiral which, when rotated, exerts linear thrust upon ...

. The initial testing of the torpedo worked, although there were leakage problems and the azimith control had difficulty. The depth mechanism worked well. In the summer of 1872, inventor-entrepreneur John L. Lay's self-propelled remote control torpedo test proved a success for the

Bureau of Ordnance The Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) was a United States Navy organization, which was responsible for the procurement, storage, and deployment of all naval weapons, between the years 1862 and 1959. History Congress established the Bureau in the Departme ...

. The torpedo testing during the 1870s was the foundation for modern American underwater warfare. In 1873 and 1874 respectively, and were launched, respectively equipped with

spar SPAR, originally DESPAR, styled as DE SPAR, is a Dutch multinational that provides branding, supplies and support services for independently owned and operated food retail stores. It was founded in the Netherlands in 1932, by Adriaan van Well, ...

and projectile torpedoes. By 1875 all U.S. naval cruisers were outfitted with spar and towing torpedoes, and naval officers were trained in their deployment. USS ''Intrepid'' was the first U.S. steam-powered projectile torpedo ship, built seven years before the British , which was roughly of similar design and purpose.

Dedicated Centennial Exposition land (1873)

On July 4, 1873 Robeson dedicated of West Fairmount Park land set aside by the Fairmount Park Commission for the 1876

Centennial Exposition The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, the first official World's Fair to be held in the United States, was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the ...

.''Philadelphia: A 300-Year History'', p. 461 President Grant could not attend the event due to the death of his father. Grant chose Robeson to go in his place. Grant's Secretary of War William W. Belknap and Grant's Attorney General George H. Williams were scheduled to attend the dedication ceremony. Robeson later met Grant at Long Branch.''New York Times'' (July 4, 1876), "The Centennial Celebration" The Centennial Exposition opened on May 10, 1876.

''Virginius'' incident and war crisis (1873)

On October 31, 1873 a Spanish warship, ''Toronado'', ran down and captured '' Virginius'', a U.S. merchant ship that was smuggling in weapons and soldiers to aid Cuba's revolt from the mother country

Friedman Friedman, Friedmann, and Freedman are surnames of German origin, and from the 17th century were also adopted by Ashkenazi Jews. It is the 9th most common surname in Israel (8th among Jews) and most common exclusively Ashkenazi name. They may refer ...

(1985), p. 406 The American public demanded war with Spain, as shocking news poured into the country that 53 British and American citizens who had joined up to aid the Cuban Insurrection were captured on ''Virginius'' and shot to death by Spanish Naval authority. In addition to this incident, a state-of-the-art Spanish warship was in port in New York Harbor, which excelled in lethal military technology compared to American warships. On November 14, 1873, Grant ordered the Navy to be put on war footing. Robeson sent a flotilla of U.S. warships, part of the

North Atlantic Squadron The North Atlantic Squadron was a section of the United States Navy operating in the North Atlantic. It was renamed as the North Atlantic Fleet in 1902. In 1905 the European and South Atlantic squadrons were abolished and absorbed into the Nort ...

, to

Key West, Florida Key West ( es, Cayo Hueso) is an island in the Straits of Florida, within the U.S. state of Florida. Together with all or parts of the separate islands of Sigsbee Park, Dredgers Key, Fleming Key, Sunset Key, and the northern part of Stock Isla ...

, 90 miles from Cuba. However, the response time was slow, as the U.S. fleet finally assembled off Key West in late January 1874. The U.S. Navy, was no match for the modern Spanish warships and navy. One U.S. officer stated that two Spanish warships could have decimated the American flotilla, the best ships the U.S. Navy could offer at the time. O'Toole (1984), p. 44 During the ''Virginius'' crisis, Sec. Robeson decided that the primary goal for the Navy was a naval resurgence program to make monitor warships that could compete with foreign navies. Congress, however, refused to make new ships, believing that the technologically revolutionary ironclads made ten years ago somehow remained modern and were good enough for the U.S. Navy. In a compromise, Robeson and Congress chose to "rebuild" five of the biggest U.S. warships, including an unfinished USS ''Puritan'' and four USS ''Miantonomah''s. The ships were contracted out, torn down and scrapped, to be "rebuilt" as new warships by various contractors approved by Sec. Robeson. Work began in 1874, but Congress refused to give Robeson 2.3 million dollars to complete the ships. The almost complete USS ''Miantonomah'' was launched on December 6, 1876. Robeson was criticized for scrapping other monitors to pay for the new ones.

(1985), p. 405 Secretary of State

Hamilton Fish Hamilton Fish (August 3, 1808September 7, 1893) was an American politician who served as the 16th Governor of New York from 1849 to 1850, a United States Senator from New York from 1851 to 1857 and the 26th United States Secretary of State fro ...

in December 1874 coolly negotiated a peaceful settlement with Spain, and the State Department successfully arbitrated Spanish reparations to the families of the Americans who had been executed.Schwartz (October 1998), ''1873 One Hundred And Twenty-five Years Ago'' The ''Virginius'' incident brought home the realities of having a weak navy and the need for a naval resurgence.

Ordered double turreted warships (1874)

At the time of the ''Virginius'' incident in 1873, Spain had the world’s most modern navy, and its army was composed of battle-hardened veterans of the war in Cuba and the civil war in Spain. In contrast, the post-Civil War demobilization of the U.S. army and navy had rendered both obsolete and insignificant. In response, Sec. Robeson ordered five double-turreted (''rotating deck guns'') warships on June 23, 1874, to implement U.S. naval resurgence; all participated in the

Spanish–American War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (clock ...

, which started in 1898.Friedman (1985), pp. 405–406 The "rebuilding" of USS ''Puritan'' and four ''Miantonomoh''s were under the direction of Sec. Robeson. Each ship was redesigned, scrapped, and rebuilt from almost all new ironworks material.Dictionary of American Fighting Ships, ''Puritan'' The five ships included the , the , the , the . and the . At the beginning of the Spanish–American War, from April 22 through 24, 1898, USS ''Terror'' captured three Spanish warships: ''Almansas'', ''Ambrosia Bolivar'' and ''Guido''. USS ''Puritan'' shelled

Matanzas Matanzas (Cuban ) is the capital of the Cuban province of Matanzas. Known for its poets, culture, and Afro-Cuban folklore, it is located on the northern shore of the island of Cuba, on the Bay of Matanzas (Spanish ''Bahia de Matanzas''), east ...

on April 27, 1898. From May 5, 1898, to August 4, 1898, USS ''Miantonomoh'' served in a squadron of ships that blockaded the northern coast of

Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribb ...

. On May 12, 1898 USS ''Amphitrite'' hurled 17 shells shoreward, as well as 30 shells, 30 3-pounders and 22 6-pounders on

San Juan, Puerto Rico San Juan (, , ; Spanish for "Saint John") is the capital city and most populous municipality in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2020 census, it is the 57th-largest city under the ...

. On February 10, 1899, USS ''Monadnock'' participated in the

Battle of Caloocan The Battle of Caloocan was one of the opening engagements of the Philippine–American War, and was fought between a U.S. force under the command of Arthur MacArthur Jr. and Filipino defenders commanded by Antonio Luna in 1899. American troops ...

, a few miles north of Manila.

Inflation bill (1874)

When the nation fell into a depression after the

Panic of 1873 The Panic of 1873 was a financial crisis that triggered an economic depression in Europe and North America that lasted from 1873 to 1877 or 1879 in France and in Britain. In Britain, the Panic started two decades of stagnation known as the ...

, Congress responded by passing Bill S.617, dubbed the "inflation bill," that would add $400 million greenbacks (paper currency) into circulation. The bill also advanced an equivalent amount of specie-backed money. Both houses overwhelming approved the bill, believing it would bring relief, to a cash-depleted nation, expecting Grant, to quickly sign it. Grant, however, contemplated that matter and discussed it with his cabinet, having received the bill on April 14, 1874. He told his cabinet he would not sign the bill, believing it would be "a departure from true principles of finance." Grant's cabinet was both divided and speechless. Robeson spoke up and said he wished "the President had reached a different conclusion." Secretary of War William Belknap said a veto "would array the entire West in opposition." Secretary of State

approved of Grant's veto. Grant vetoed the bill, while an attempt to override Grant's veto failed in the Senate.

Feud with Bristow (1874)

When

Benjamin Bristow Benjamin Helm Bristow (June 20, 1832 – June 22, 1896) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 30th U.S. Treasury Secretary and the first Solicitor General. A Union military officer, Bristow was a Republican Party reformer and ...

was appointed Secretary of Treasury by Grant in June 1874, a feud developed between Bristow and Robeson within a few months. The controversy centered around Robeson wanting to have Senator A.G. Cattell appointed financial agent in London to negotiate a bond issue. Cattell had performed a similar service in 1873 under previous Secretary Richardson. Bristow refused to make the appointment and believed a Treasury appointee could do the job. Bristow lobbied Grant to appoint

John Bigelow John Bigelow Sr. (November 25, 1817 – December 19, 1911) was an American lawyer, statesman, and historian who edited the complete works of Benjamin Franklin and the first autobiography of Franklin taken from Franklin's previously lost origina ...

, head of the Treasury Department's Loan Division. Grant accepted Bristow's choice of Bigelow, but he warned Bristow that Bigelow had a previous episode of drunkness. Bristow went further to undercut Robeson's influence in the Grant cabinet. Bristow told Grant that Robeson's Navy Department was financially mismanaged, and was under the control of former treasury secretary

Hugh McCulloch Hugh McCulloch (December 7, 1808 – May 24, 1895) was an American financier who played a central role in financing the American Civil War. He served two non-consecutive terms as U.S. Treasury Secretary under three presidents. He was originally ...

's banking house. Bristow's advisers warned Bristow to cool things off and take a less confrontational approach.

Report on U.S. Navy (1875)

On December 6, 1875, Secretary Robeson released his report on the condition of the U.S. Navy. The ''New York Times'' stated that the U.S. Navy was "stronger than at any time" since the

Civil War A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government polici ...

.''New York Times'' (December 7, 1875), "Secretary Robeson's Report" Robeson stated in his report that by 1875 the U.S. Navy was the strongest it had been during Grant's presidential term starting in 1869. The U.S. Navy consisted of 147 ships of every class and description, and twenty-six ships were sailing vessels without any steam power. Robeson stated that of the 147 ships in the U.S. Navy, 80 were available for war, including sixteen ironclads and two torpedo ships, USS ''Alarm'' and . ''Intrepid'' was the second U.S. propelled torpedo warship, built-in 1874. The British Royal Navy would not have a propelled torpedo warship until 10 years later. There was a total of 1,195 guns on all the ships combined. Robeson commented that the U.S. Navy was introducing and experimenting with breech-loading howitzers in the naval system, that Gatling guns were on every ship in the U.S. Navy, and that the Torpedo School at Newport was developing efficient torpedoes that could cause great destruction. Concerning the five double-turreted monitors that Robeson had designed and ordered over a year ago in June 1874, he pressed Congress for funding to complete the ships.

House investigation and corruption (1876)

In 1869, when Robeson was appointed Secretary of Navy by Grant, he had a total net worth of $20,000 and had "a slender law-practice". A July 1876 Congressional investigation run by the Democratic House, revealed that Robeson deposited $320,000 in his bank account, well above his $8,000 yearly salary, from 1872 to 1876. Robeson had cooperated with the investigating committee giving his testimony and bank deposit information. The investigation revealed that Secretary Robeson gave a Philadelphia feed and grain firm, A. G. Cattell & Co., a $30,000 naval contract.Cattell was soon earning brokerage commissions from other suppliers in order to gain federal naval contracts. In addition to receiving kickbacks, Cattell bought Robeson a vacation home at Long Branch, New York. Cattell's books upon investigation were found to be in disorder, and there was no direct evidence linking Robeson to kickbacks or the purchase of the Long Branch cottage. The Naval Committee's all-Democratic majority negative report stated that Sec. Robeson had run a "system of corruption" and recommended that he either be impeached by the House Judiciary Committee or that reform laws be made by Congress. No articles of impeachment, however, were drawn up for Robeson. Grant did not ask Robeson to resign and supported the Naval Committee's minority-Republican report that exonerated Robeson. Additionally, Robeson was accused by Admiral

Porter Porter may refer to: Companies * Porter Airlines, Canadian regional airline based in Toronto * Porter Chemical Company, a defunct U.S. toy manufacturer of chemistry sets * Porter Motor Company, defunct U.S. car manufacturer * H.K. Porter, Inc., ...

of squandering $15,000,000 of missing naval construction funds, and of committing 30 misdemeanors. Porter called Robeson the "

cuttlefish Cuttlefish or cuttles are marine molluscs of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda which also includes squid, octopuses, and nautiluses. Cuttlefish have a unique internal shell, the cuttlebone, which is used for control of ...

" (a

cephalopod A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda ( Greek plural , ; "head-feet") such as a squid, octopus, cuttlefish, or nautilus. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head ...

known for camouflage) of the Navy because he believed Robeson was good at hiding his financial tracks and was supported by Grant's boyhood friend

.McFeely (1974), p. 153 Historians believe Robeson was exceedingly careless and partisan in his role as Secretary of Navy.

U.S. Senate run (1876)

In 1876, Robeson was nominated by the Republican Party to run for the New Jersey U.S. Senate seat. However, corruption charges against Robeson caused him to lose the election.

Defended by Grant (1876)

280px, Robeson seated second right of Grant in Grant's Cabinet 1876–1877 On December 5, 1876, President Grant defended Robeson inis 8th annual State of the Union Address: :"The fact that our Navy is not more modern and powerful than it is has been made a cause of complaint against the Secretary of the Navy by persons who at the same time criticize and complain of his endeavors to bring the Navy that we have to its best and most efficient condition; but the good sense of the country will understand that it is really due to his practical action that we have at this time any effective naval force at command."Eighth Annual Message
(December 5, 1876), viewed on 03-09-2015 Additionally, Grant requested that Congress give more funding for the completion of the five modernized warships that Robeson had ordered in 1874. Grant stated that the high cost of building new ships was caused by the use of steam power machinery. Grant commented on Robeson's annual report on the condition of the U.S. Navy: :"The report of the Secretary of the Navy shows that branch of the service to be in condition as effective as it is possible to keep it with the means and authority given the Department. It is, of course, not possible to rival the costly and progressive establishments of great European powers with the old material of our Navy, to which no increase has been authorized since the war, except the eight small cruisers built to supply the place of others which had gone to decay. Yet the most has been done that was possible with the means at command; and by substantially rebuilding some of our old ships with durable material and completely repairing and refitting our monitor fleet the Navy has been gradually so brought up that, though it does not maintain its relative position among the progressive navies of the world, it is now in a condition more powerful and effective than it ever has been in time of peace."

Farewell speech (1877)

On March 14, 1877, two days after his term of office ended, Robeson gave a farewell speech to his former subordinate chiefs and clerks at the Naval Department at his luxurious K Street house in Washington D.C. He thanked them for showing up and said that he was leaving office with relief and regret. He said that workers in his Naval Department had served faithfully and that he himself had faithfully and steadily advanced the Naval Department. Robeson admitted he had made mistakes during his long tenure as Secretary of the Navy. He said he had the courage not to deny the rights of any man due to his class.''New York Times'' (03-15-1877)
"Ex-Secretary Robeson Interview of the Chiefs and Clerks of the Department-Farewell Remarks of Mr. Robeson"
view on 10-11-2014, PDF

Legal career Camden County

Robeson left the U.S. Navy Secretary office in March 1877. Having failed in the U.S. Senate bid, Robeson returned to his law practice in Camden County.''Dictionary of American Biography''

Hunter murder trial

Although Robeson previously served as a state prosecutor, he served on the defense team of Benjamin F. Hunter, who was put on trial for the murder of John M. Armstrong. Hunter had loaned Armstrong, a music publisher, $12,000, and had taken out an insurance policy on Armstrong for $26,000, as collateral. Hunter hired Thomas Graham for $500 to kill Armstrong, so Hunter could collect the insurance policy. Armstrong had also owed money to Ford W. Davis, and Hunter plotted to frame Davis for the murder. While Hunter and Armstrong were approaching Davis' home, in Camden, Graham struck Hunter in the head with a hatchet marked "F.W.D." Graham dropped the hatched, ran away, while Hunter took the hatchet, and continued to strike Armstrong in the head. Armstrong later died in Philadelphia of head wounds. Davis was arrested and held in prison for a few weeks. Davis was released, after Graham confessed to the murder, and Hunter's involvement. Hunter was indicted for murder and put on trial June 10, 1878. Robeson and Hunter's defense team argued that there was no evidence Hunter was in Camden at the time of the murder. The jury, however, after 23 days of the trial, convicted Hunter. The case was appealed and rejected. Hunter was executed on July 10, 1879.

U.S. Congress Representative career (1879–1883)

180px, Robeson lampooned by ''Puck'' magazine for $150,000,000 surplus.
Robeson was Chairman of Naval expenditures.
(Keppler 1882) In 1878, Robeson ran for and was elected to the U.S. Congress and served as a U.S. Congressman representing

New Jersey's 1st congressional district New Jersey's 1st congressional district is a congressional district in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The district, which includes Camden and South Jersey suburbs of Philadelphia, has been represented by Democrat Donald Norcross since November ...

from March 4, 1879, until March 3, 1881. He was elected to a second term in 1880, serving from March 4, 1881, to March 3, 1883. Although he was criticized in 1882 for allocating a large surplus to the Navy by the Democratic ''Puck'' magazine, historians today acknowledge that the U.S. Navy under President

Chester A. Arthur Chester Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 21st president of the United States from 1881 to 1885. He previously served as the 20th vice president under President James ...

, while Robeson was in office, made significant advancements by having all-steel ships. During the 1882 election, Robeson was defeated by Democrat

in a bitter campaign that left Robeson $60,000 in debt, and he was forced to sell his Washington D.C. property, including his luxurious mansion.New York Times (November 29, 1891),
Mr. Robeson's Ambition
' Robeson's political enemy, New Jersey U.S. Senator

William J. Sewell William Joyce Sewell (December 6, 1835 – December 27, 1901) was an Irish-American Republican Party (US), Republican Party politician, merchant, and military officer who served as a U.S. Senator from New Jersey for two non-consecutive term ...

, a Republican, was behind the Democrat Ferrell's successful campaign. As a result of the election loss, Robeson moved from Camden to Trenton and established a law practice, having been induced to represent the

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the first common carrier railroad and the oldest railroad in the United States, with its first section opening in 1830. Merchants from Baltimore, which had benefited to some extent from the construction of ...

. In 1881, Robeson, while he was U.S. Representative, made another bid for U.S. Senator of New Jersey but again was defeated. Camden People (April 21, 2016) During Robeson's tenure in the 47th Congress (1881–1883), he served as chairman of the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of the Navy.

Sued by John Cambell

In 1885, Robeson was sued for $297 by John Cambell, a

livery A livery is an identifying design, such as a uniform, ornament, symbol or insignia that designates ownership or affiliation, often found on an individual or vehicle. Livery will often have elements of the heraldry relating to the individual or ...

man, who had aided Robeson during his 1882 First Congressional District election campaign.New York Times (July 9, 1885),
Ex-Secretary Robeson Sued
', Accessed on February 21, 2013 Cambell had organized horses, the Sixth Regiment Band, and security for Robeson in support of the Republican ticket. Robeson at the time was Treasurer of the Camden County Republican Executive Committee, and Cambell claimed that Robeson did not pay him for his services. Robeson stated that he had paid $75 to the leader of the band and that he paid $258 to 11 constables who were hired for security. Robeson said he did not believe that the hire of security and the band was necessary. Robeson also stated he had paid Cambell a check for $500 in addition to $300 for "political purposes". Robeson admitted he owed Cambell $42 for the hire of carriages. The jury returned a verdict that agreed with Robeson and Cambell was awarded $42 plus three years' interest. Justice Park on the Camden County Circuit Court presided over Robeson's lawsuit trial. In 1891, Robeson became interested in running for U.S. Congressman for the fourth time. However, the Trenton district was content with the Democratic ticket, and nothing became of Robeson's inquiry into public office.

Death

Robeson continued practicing law until his death at the age of 68 on September 27, 1897. He is buried at

Belvidere Cemetery Belvidere Cemetery is a cemetery located in Belvidere, in Warren County, New Jersey that was founded in 1834. It includes many graves of people who fought in the American Revolutionary War. Notable interments *Charlie Berry (1902–1972), M ...

Belvidere, New Jersey Belvidere is a town in Warren County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. As of the 2010 U.S. census, the town's population was 2,681,Spanish–American War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (clock ...

, which started in April 1898. Robeson's home was at 214 North Third Street. In 1940, Elizabeth Carlin bought Robeson's former home.

Historical reputation

In 2001, historian

Jean Edward Smith Jean Edward Smith (October 13, 1932 – September 1, 2019) was a biographer and the John Marshall Professor of Political Science at Marshall University. He was also professor emeritus at the University of Toronto after having served as professor ...

said: " tNavy, George Robeson, a New Jersey lawyer, had replaced Adop Borie. Both were successful businessmen whose company Grant enjoyed, and both were content to leave naval matters in the hands of the admirals. Robeson later came under fire for contract improprieties, but congressional investigators found no evidence of illicit payments to the secretary." In 2016, historian

Ronald C. White Ronald C. "Ron" White (born May 22, 1939) is an American historian, author, and lecturer. He has written bestselling and award-winning biographies and books on Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant. He is a senior fellow at the Trinity Forum. Edu ...

said Robeson "was a handsome, jovial man but was portrayed on the Washington social circuit as a "first-rate judge of wine, a second-rate trout fisherman, and a third-rate New Jersey lawyer." Most people added Robeson was a fourth-rate secretary of the navy." In 2017, historian

Ron Chernow Ronald Chernow (; born March 3, 1949) is an American writer, journalist and biographer. He has written bestselling historical non-fiction biographies. He won the 2011 Pulitzer Prize for Biography and the 2011 American History Book Prize for hi ...

said Robeson was a "roly-poly

Princeton Princeton University is a private research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nin ...

graduate with muttonchop whiskers and a sociable bent, who had been a brigadier general in the war. He would prove a capable if often slipshod administrator, shadowed by suspicions of corruption." Historically, Robeson is often mentioned by biographers of

Marriage and family

On January 23, 1872, Robeson married Mary Isabella (Ogston) Aulick, a widow with a son, Richmond Aulick.The Twentieth Century Biographical Dictionary of Notable Americans (1904), ''Robeson, George Maxwell'' Robeson and Mary had a daughter named Ethel Maxwell Robeson, who married William Sterling, the son of

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...

Maj. John Barton Sterling, on November 22, 1910, in Christ Church,

Mayfair Mayfair is an affluent area in the West End of London towards the eastern edge of Hyde Park, in the City of Westminster, between Oxford Street, Regent Street, Piccadilly and Park Lane. It is one of the most expensive districts in the world ...

England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...

.An historical and genealogical account of Andrew Robeson (1916) Mary's son, Richmond, graduated from Princeton University in 1889. The embittered 1882 Congressional election loss caused contention in Robeson's family. His wife went abroad and the campaign left Robeson destitute. In New Jersey, Robeson was called derisively "Poor Roby". James L. Hayes selected a small house near the State House in Trenton where Robeson lived and practiced law.

References

Sources

Books

By Author * scholarly review and response by Calhoun at * * * * * * * * By Editor *

Biographical dictionaries

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Websites