Gender Equality Bureau
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The was established in 2001 as a division of the Japanese Cabinet Office tasked with planning and coordinating the policies of the Japanese Government pertaining to
gender equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing d ...
. The Gender Equality Bureau conducts research on topics concerning issues of
gender Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures ...
—compiling findings into an annual report called the "White Paper".


History

In 1994, the Headquarters for the Promotion of Gender Equality was created within the Cabinet of Japan. With the 1999 implementation of the Basic Law for a Gender-Equal Society, both the Office for Gender Equality and the Council for Gender Equality were established by the Japanese Cabinet. During the governmental reforms effected January 6, 2001, the Gender Equality Bureau was established under the newly formulated Cabinet Office. Coupled with the Gender Equality Council, the Bureau is tasked with devising and coordinating plans regarding issues of gender equality in addition to executing plans that fall outside of the jurisdiction of any other ministry. When first founded, the Gender Equality Bureau was composed of 50 people with an equal balance between male and female members.


Reasons for creation of the Bureau

Formulated partially as a result from outside pressure by
Japanese feminists Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspo ...
, the creation of the Gender Equality Bureau was praised by the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
, which cited the need for systemic social changes in Japan. While Japanese women were guaranteed equality in the 1947 constitution, many argued that there was a large gap between the ideals of the law and reality. In 1979, 70% of Japanese citizens surveyed agreed with the statement "the husband should be the
breadwinner The breadwinner model is a paradigm of family centered on a breadwinner, "the member of a family who earns the money to support the others." Traditionally, the earner works outside the home to provide the family with income and benefits such as ...
, the wife should stay at home". During the 1980s—a decade which saw Japan ratify the U.N. Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 1985 and the proposal of Japan's first National Action Plan for combating gender inequality in 1987—one public opinion survey found that 71% of Japanese women favored separate roles for men and women. Women constituted 1.7% of government management in 1997, and 0.2% of corporate management in 1998. Facing increasing international pressure from bodies like the United Nations, Japan in the 1990s undertook a variety of efforts that culminated in the creation of the Gender Equality Bureau in 2001.


Mission statement

The Gender Equality Bureau seeks to promote a "Gender-Equal Society", where the human rights of all men and women are equally respected, and both genders have equal opportunity. The Bureau states that this goal is predicated on the establishment of a social and policy framework that allows individuals to choose their lifestyle without the limitations of traditional gender views. Specifically, the Gender Equality Bureau singles out the notion that women are supposed to be
homemaker Homemaking is mainly an American and Canadian term for the management of a home, otherwise known as housework, housekeeping, housewifery or household management. It is the act of overseeing the organizational, day-to-day operations of a hous ...
s and men the breadwinners, calling on all citizens of Japan to "rethink our prejudiced notions of gender-based roles, so that we may realize a society where men and women can participate together in politics, at the workplace and at home, and lead exciting and fulfilling lives".


Measures towards gender-equality


Expansion of women's participation in policy and decision-making in all fields of society

The Gender Equality Bureau seeks to increase the amount of power in female hands through the promotion of " positive action", where legal means are used to amend gender disparities so that both men and women are given equal opportunity to partake in all aspects of society. The current goal the Bureau wishes to achieve is to increase the percentage of women in leadership positions to at least 30% by the year 2020 in a wide range of fields, such as
academia An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, ...
and
politics Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...
.


Work–life balance for men and women

The Gender Equality Bureau defines a work–life balance as a society in which an individual is not limited by his/her gender in choosing a fulfilling occupation that will accommodate each stage of an individual's life. Japanese workers on average have a minimum of ten work days for vacation time per year and are given zero paid public holidays, numbers that are far below any other industrialized nation except the United States. In order to ensure that Japanese workers are free to lead a healthy and affluent life in a style of their choosing while also maintaining their economic independence, the Gender Equality Bureau in 2007 recommended a variety of policies for both the
public In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individual people, and the public (a.k.a. the general public) is the totality of such groupings. This is a different concept to the sociological concept of the ''Öffentlichk ...
and
private sector The private sector is the part of the economy, sometimes referred to as the citizen sector, which is owned by private groups, usually as a means of establishment for profit or non profit, rather than being owned by the government. Employment The ...
in order to increase time-off for employees. The Bureau has pushed private employers to offer flexible hours that can cater to a variety of lifestyles, such as offering child-care leave for men in order to promote the male's role in child-rearing. Government, per the Bureau's recommendation, is tasked with providing a policy structure that meets both male and female needs, hiring only companies that practice work–life balance for public contracts, and passing
legislation Legislation is the process or result of enrolling, enacting, or promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to ...
that signifies the importance of both genders taking an active role in domestic work.


Stopping violence against women

] In recognition of the emphasis put on the cessation of
violence against women Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), are violent acts primarily or exclusively committed against women or girls, usually by men or boys. Such violence is often con ...
by the United Nations, the Gender Equality Bureau has made many endeavors to eliminate the issue. In 2001, the Bureau formulated the Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims in an effort to curtail
domestic abuse Domestic violence (also known as domestic abuse or family violence) is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. ''Domestic violence'' is often used as a synonym for '' intimate partne ...
. The act strives to increase the resources available to victims of spousal abuse while also providing a legal framework for victims to petition for protection against their abusers. The Gender Equality Bureau also campaigns annually from November 12 through November 25 to raise social awareness of violence against women to coincide with the United Nations' International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women, in part by providing preventive education materials aimed at youths.


International cooperation

The Gender Equality Bureau, in seeking to promote gender equality in Japan, has sought guidance from international bodies such as the United Nations, the
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC ) is an inter-governmental forum for 21 member economies in the Pacific Rim that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
, and the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN ( , ), officially the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is a political and economic union of 10 member states in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, militar ...
. In 2010, Japan served as chair of APEC, and held the 15th Women Leaders Network meeting in
Tokyo Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and List of cities in Japan, largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, ...
. Japan was also one of the initial executives of
UN Women The United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, also known as UN Women, is a United Nations entity working for gender equality and the empowerment of women. UN Women advocates for the rights of women and girls, and foc ...
, which was formed in January 2011. The Gender Equality Bureau also works with international non-governmental agencies, such as Polaris Project and
ECPAT ECPAT International is a global network of civil society organisations that works to end the sexual exploitation of children. It focuses on ending the online sexual exploitation of children, the trafficking of children for sexual purposes, the se ...
, to combat issues such as human trafficking and
sexual abuse Sexual abuse or sex abuse, also referred to as molestation, is abusive sexual behavior by one person upon another. It is often perpetrated using force or by taking advantage of another. Molestation often refers to an instance of sexual assa ...
. Some observers have also noted how international studies on gender inequality, such as those conducted annually by the
World Economic Forum The World Economic Forum (WEF) is an international non-governmental and lobbying organisation based in Cologny, canton of Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded on 24 January 1971 by German engineer and economist Klaus Schwab. The foundation, ...
, have acted as catalysts for movement on the gender equality front by the Japanese government.


Publications


The White Paper

The White Paper is an annual report published by the Gender Equality Bureau that contains both research and policy suggestions for issues of gender inequality. The main object of study for each White Paper remains largely consistent with the measures for gender equality established by the 1999 Basic Laws for a Gender-equal Society, although each new report attempts to address obstacles to the accomplishment of these measures. The 2010 White Paper—the latest year available online—focused on the
education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...
of
Japanese women Although women in Japan were recognized as having equal legal rights to men after World War II, economic conditions for women remain unbalanced. Modern policy initiatives to encourage motherhood and workplace participation have had mixed results ...
, calling for their increased education of the variety of career opportunities available to them in an attempt to avoid the closing of the next generation of Japanese women's minds due to stereotyped perception of gender roles in society. The 2010 White Paper also pushes for combating the popular perception of gender equality being only concerned with women, stating that a gender-equal society would benefit both "the male worker and the housewife".


Other publications


"Stop the Violence" (2008)

The Gender Equality Bureau publishes a variety of research and pamphlets each year. In 2008, a pamphlet called "Stop the Violence" was published, containing information for victims of
spousal abuse Domestic violence (also known as domestic abuse or family violence) is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. ''Domestic violence'' is often used as a synonym for ''intimate partner v ...
.


"Men and Women of Japan" (2011)

Since 1996, the Gender Equality Bureau published a pamphlet detailing the current status of men and women in contemporary Japan that is presently called ''Women and Men in Japan''.


"Disaster Prevention and Reconstruction from the Perspective of Gender Equality" (2012)

In the wake of the
Great East Japan earthquake Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" *Artel Great (born ...
on March 11, 2011, the Gender Equality Bureau published a pamphlet for aid-workers on how to properly respond to disasters areas from a gender standpoint.


Criticisms


Representation of women in public and private sectors

Despite the Gender Equality Bureau's efforts to increase representation of women in the public and private sector, some point out that Japan continues to lag far behind other industrialized nations in gender equality. According to the World Economic Forum, in 2011 Japan was ranked 100th out of 135 countries with regards to "Economic Participation and Opportunity", and 80th out of 135 for educational attainment for women. For female political empowerment, Japan ranked 101st, with an equality score of 0.072, with 1.00 representing total equality. To explain this lack of traction, some point to Japan's manifestation of a "
glass ceiling A glass ceiling is a metaphor usually applied to women, used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy.Federal Glass Ceiling Commission''Solid Investments: Making Full ...
" that limits the advancement of women in the workplace, and a culture that sees women workers as subservient employees who are expected to quit once married. From 1998 to 2009, the percentage of female corporate directors increased from 0.2% to 1.4%, an improvement one Japanese female chairwoman called "pathetically low".


Work–life balance

Sociologist Yuko Kawanishi, in an interview, said that Japanese
corporate culture Historically there have been differences among investigators regarding the definition of organizational culture. Edgar Schein, a leading researcher in this field, defined "organizational culture" as comprising a number of features, including a ...
has blocked the goal of a work–life balance: "The men became slaves to the company which became like a family. People got sucked into the system and women had to take care of the home, in a kind of division of labour". Others argue that the demanding hours expected of employees in general force women out of the workplace. In 2006—according to one study—almost half of all Japanese women resigned from their jobs once they became pregnant with their first child, and of these women, less than 30% would go on to continue full-time work after
childbirth Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million births glob ...
. Critics say that this gendered split of the workforce only perpetuates the notion that women are meant to be homemakers and men the breadwinners.


Violence against women

In response to a 2004 Trafficking in Persons Report by the U.S. State Department that put international pressure on Japan to increase actions against human trafficking, the Japanese Government in 2009 adopted the Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons. This act provides the Japanese government with powers to apply criminal law to human traffickers, and allow government bodies like the Gender Equality Bureau to collaborate with foreign countries and NGOs to protect victims. The 2011 Trafficking in Persons Report states that the measures undertaken by the Japanese government are "modest, but overall inadequate" efforts to combat human trafficking.


International cooperation

] The
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
has been critical of Japan's failure to annually report the country's progress on gender equality issues, and for being slow to implement policies recommended by the U.N. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against All Women. Additionally, international studies that focus on gender equality have shown little significant statistical progress for women in Japan. Some sects of Japanese society have also been vocal about their opposition to some components of
gender equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing d ...
, in the past complaining that discussions of
sexual discrimination Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls.There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primari ...
are nothing more than an effort to apply foreign values to Japanese society. In attempting to explain similar criticisms manifest in other countries, some academics have argued that global structures of gender often butt heads with more culture-specific concepts, resulting in tension between the imposed and traditional gender and/or sexual norms. According to one study, this tension in Japan is likely to lessen over successive generations, as holders of traditional views tend to belong to an older cohort of the population. Others argue that the tension between global and local concepts of gender will eventually resolve in the establishment of a third system that will be a unique conglomeration of traditional and global
gender norms A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's sex. Gender roles are usually cent ...
for a particular region.


Global gender gap

Japan's global ranking for female equality had risen four places from 105th in 2013 to 101st in 2015, before plummeting to an all-time low of 111th in 2016, according to the annual Global Gender Gap Report.


See also

* Family policy in Japan *
Feminism in Japan Feminism in Japan began with women's rights movements that date back to antiquity. The movement started to gain momentum after Western thinking was brought into Japan during the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Japanese feminism differs from Western fe ...
*
Kyariaūman A is a Japanese term for a career woman. The term refers to the type of Japanese woman, married or not, that pursues a career to make a living and for personal advancement rather than being a housewife without occupation outside the home. The te ...
, career woman * Overview of gender inequality in Japan *
Women in Japan Although women in Japan were recognized as having equal legal rights to men after World War II, economic conditions for women remain unbalanced. Modern policy initiatives to encourage motherhood and workplace participation have had mixed results ...


References


External links

* {{authority control Women in Japan Women's rights in Japan Gender equality ministries Government agencies of Japan Government agencies established in 2001