Physically bridging

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...

and

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...

, Turkey is a secular country that has pursued a Western-oriented foreign policy.Robins, Philip. Turkey and the Middle East. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs and New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991. To this end,

Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...

uses its global diplomatic network—the fourth most extensive—of 246 diplomatic and consular missions. Since the Cold War,

's most important ally has been the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...

, which shared

's interest in containing Soviet expansion. In support of the

contributed personnel to the UN forces in the

Korean War , date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...

(1950–1953), joined

NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...

in 1952, recognized

Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...

in 1948 and has cooperated closely with it.

's alliance with

during the

Arab–Israeli conflict The Arab–Israeli conflict is an ongoing intercommunal phenomenon involving political tension, military conflicts, and other disputes between Arab countries and Israel, which escalated during the 20th century, but had mostly faded out by the ...

strained its relations with the

Arab world The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western A ...

, and

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...

, and subsequently led to overt Syrian support for

Palestinian Palestinians ( ar, الفلسطينيون, ; he, פָלַסְטִינִים, ) or Palestinian people ( ar, الشعب الفلسطيني, label=none, ), also referred to as Palestinian Arabs ( ar, الفلسطينيين العرب, label=non ...

and Armenian terrorist operations against Turkish diplomats abroad until 1990.

History

Historically, the

Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire The foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire were characterized by competition with the Persian Empire to the east, Russia to the north, and Austria to the west. The control over European minorities began to collapse after 1800, with Greece being t ...

and later Turkey balanced regional and global powers off against one another, forming alliances that best protected the interests of the incumbent regime. The Soviet Union played a major role in supplying weapons to and financing Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's faction during the

Turkish War of Independence The Turkish War of Independence "War of Liberation", also known figuratively as ''İstiklâl Harbi'' "Independence War" or ''Millî Mücadele'' "National Struggle" (19 May 1919 – 24 July 1923) was a series of military campaigns waged by th ...

but Turkey's followed a course of relative international isolation during the period of Atatürk's Reforms in 1920s and 1930s. International conferences gave Turkey full control of the strategic straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, through the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and the Montreux Convention of 1936. In the late 1930s Nazi Germany made a major effort to promote anti-Soviet propaganda in Turkey and exerted economic pressure. Britain and France, eager to outmaneuver Germany, negotiated a tripartite treaty in 1939. They gave Turkey a line of credit to purchase war materials from the West and a loan to facilitate the purchase of commodities. Afraid of threats from Germany and Russia, Turkey maintained neutrality. It sold chrome—an important war material—to both sides. It was clear by 1944 that Germany would be defeated and the chrome sales to Germany stopped.

After 1945

After World War II Turkey sought closer relations with Western powers. It became a founding member of the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...

in 1945, a recipient of

Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative enacted in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe. The United States transferred over $13 billion (equivalent of about $ in ) in economic re ...

aid and a member of

North Atlantic Treaty Organization The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...

in 1952.

European Union–Turkey relations European, or Europeans, or Europeneans, may refer to: In general * ''European'', an adjective referring to something of, from, or related to Europe ** Ethnic groups in Europe ** Demographics of Europe ** European cuisine, the cuisines of Europe a ...

warmed during the Cold War period and the post- Cold War period has seen a diversification of relations, with Turkey, at various moments, seeking to strengthen its regional presence in the

Balkans The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...

, the Middle East and the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...

, as well as taking steps toward EU membership. Under the AKP government (2003–), Turkey's economy has grown rapidly and the country's influence has grown in the Middle East based on a strategic depth doctrine, also called

Neo-Ottomanism Neo-Ottomanism ( Turkish: ''Yeni Osmanlıcılık, Neo-Osmanlıcılık'') is an Islamist, irredentist and imperialist Turkish political ideology that, in its broadest sense, advocates to honor the Ottoman past of Turkey and promotes greater polit ...

. Debate on Turkey's foreign relations is controversial both within Turkey itself and outside the country. In the West, there is a divide between those who are worried about Turkey's perceived movement away from the West toward a less democratic, more Islamic or more pro-Russian and pro-Chinese orientation and those who do not see Turkey's changing political structure, growing regional power and relations with Russia as a threat.Kubilay Yado Arin: ''The AKP's Foreign Policy, Turkey's Reorientation from the West to the East?'' Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, Berlin 2013. ISBN 9 783865 737199.

Bilateral relations

Despite being one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence, Turkey has never established formal diplomatic relations with

Armenia Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ' ...

. Turkey formerly had diplomatic relations with

Cyprus Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...

Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...

and Syria.

Africa

There has been a revival in Turkey's relation with Africa after 1998 and civil society is the leading factor in this process. Initially this revival came as a passive attempt, but after 2005 it became an offensive interest in developing relations with the continent. The recent Turkey–Africa Cooperation Summit in 2008 marks the latest stage in Turkey's keen interest in developing relations with Africa, and should be seen as a turning point. Turkey since its involvement in Somalia in 2011, is eager to be considered as a political actor in the continent.

Northern Africa

Sub–Saharan Africa

Since 2008,

has prioritized friendly relations with

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

partly to build friendly and conflict–free relations, which was not available in the hostile atmosphere in its neighborhood. Capitalizing on a strong sentiment of fellowship among Turkish people towards

ns, economic and diplomatic relations with

flourished: Foreign trade between sub-Saharan Africa and Turkey increased from US$581 millionÖzkan, M. "Turkey's 'New' engagements in Africa and Asia: Scope, content and implications." ''Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs'', XVI(3), pp. 115–137. 2011. in 1998 to US$5.08 billion in 2015. Dating back to 1800,

's relations with sub-Saharan Africa flourished from the 1860s—when the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...

started sending trained imams to the region—until 1885 when other European colonial powers blocked Ottoman influence. Relations were restored in the 1950s, and gained momentum when Emperor

Haile Selassie Haile Selassie I ( gez, ቀዳማዊ ኀይለ ሥላሴ, Qädamawi Häylä Səllasé, ; born Tafari Makonnen; 23 July 189227 August 1975) was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. He rose to power as Regent Plenipotentiary of Ethiopia (' ...

visited

in March 1967 and December 1969. Since 2008,

has contributed to the region through participation in peacekeeping missions, including the UN Mission in Ivory Coast (UNOC), the

Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...

, Liberia,

Central African Republic The Central African Republic (CAR; ; , RCA; , or , ) is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the southeast, the DR Congo to the south, the Republic of th ...

, Chad.İpek, V. "Turkey's foreign policy implementation in Africa: A post international approach." ''New Perspectives on Turkey'', 49(Fall), pp. 121–156. 2013.

has also dramatically increased financial aid to the region, providing a total of US$6.38 billion to the region just between 2006 and 2011 including the 2011 donation of US$200 million to fight the famine in East Africa.

Americas

Southern Cone

North America

Caribbean

Central America

Latin America, rest of

Asia and Oceania

Turkic states

Asia-Pacific

Western Asia

Europe

International organizations

ASEAN ASEAN ( , ), officially the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is a political and economic union of 10 member states in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, militar ...

(Sectoral Dialogue Partner) * ACD * ADB *

Australia Group The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) and an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984) to help member countries to i ...

* BIS * Black Sea Naval Force *

BSEC The Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) is a regional international organization focusing on multilateral political and economic initiatives aimed at fostering cooperation, peace, stability and prosperity in the Black Sea ...

* CE *

Community of Portuguese Language Countries The Community of Portuguese Language Countries ( Portuguese: ''Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa''; abbreviated as the CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth (''Comunidade Lusófona''), is an international organization and pol ...

(observer) * Developing-8 *

EBRD The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies. Initially foc ...

G20 The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stability, climate change mitigatio ...

IAEA The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. It was established in 195 ...

IBRD The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is an international financial institution, established in 1944 and headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, that is the lending arm of World Bank Group. The IBRD offers l ...

* International Energy Agency *

* NEA * NSG *

OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; french: Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, ''OCDE'') is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate e ...

* OIC *

OSCE The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest regional security-oriented intergovernmental organization with observer status at the United Nations. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, prom ...

Turkic Council The Organization of Turkic States (OTS), formerly called the Turkic Council or the Cooperation Council of Turkic Speaking States, is an international organization comprising prominent independent Turkic countries: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz ...

* TURKPA * TÜRKSOY * UfM Turkey is a founding member of the UN (1945), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1961), the

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation An organization or organisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is an entity—such as a company, an institution, or an association—comprising one or more people and having a particular purpose. The word is derived from ...

(1969), the

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest regional security-oriented intergovernmental organization with observer status at the United Nations. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, pro ...

(OSCE) (1973), and the G20 industrial nations (1999). Turkey is a member state of the Council of Europe (1949) and

(1952) as well as being in full accession negotiations with the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been de ...

since 2005, having been an associate member since 1963. Turkey was also an associate member of the

Western European Union The Western European Union (WEU; french: Union de l'Europe occidentale, UEO; german: Westeuropäische Union, WEU) was the international organisation and military alliance that succeeded the Western Union (WU) after the 1954 amendment of the 1948 ...

from 1992 to 2011, and signed the E.U. Customs Union agreement in 1995. Turkey entered NATO in 1952 and serves as the organization's vital eastern anchor, controlling the Turkish Straits which lead from the

Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Rom ...

to the

Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western Europe, Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa ...

and sharing a border with Syria, Iraq, and

. A NATO headquarters is located in

İzmir İzmir ( , ; ), also spelled Izmir, is a metropolitan city in the western extremity of Anatolia, capital of the province of the same name. It is the third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara and the second largest urban aggl ...

, and the United States has maintained air forces at the

Incirlik Air Base Incirlik Air Base ( tr, İncirlik Hava Üssü) is a Turkish air base of slightly more than 3320 ac (1335 ha), located in the İncirlik quarter of the city of Adana, Turkey. The base is within an urban area of 1.7 million people, east of ...

in the province of

Adana Adana (; ; ) is a major city in southern Turkey. It is situated on the Seyhan River, inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The administrative seat of Adana province, it has a population of 2.26 million. Adana lies in the heart of Cilicia, wh ...

. Turkey is also a member of the

World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates and facilitates international trade. With effective cooperation in the United Nations System, governments use the organization to establish, revise, and ...

(WTO) since 1995. It has signed free trade agreements with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Israel, and many other countries. In 1992, Turkey and 10 other regional nations formed the

to expand regional trade and economic cooperation. In 2017,

-Turkey Sectoral Dialogue Partnership was recognized by the 50th ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Meeting in

Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populate ...

Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...

References

* Aybet, Gülnur. ''Turkey's Foreign Policy and Its Implications for the West: A Turkish Perspective''. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1994. * Aydin-Duzgit, Senem and Keyman, Fuat, "EU–Turkey Relations and the Stagnation of Turkish Democracy," IAI/IPC, Global Turkey in Europe, Working Paper 2 (2012). * Barchard, David. "Turkey and the West." (Chatham House Papers, No. 27, published for the Royal Institute of International Affairs.) London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985. * Cakir, A.E. (ed.), ''Fifty Years of EU–Turkey Relations'' (Oxon: Routledge, 2011). * Dixon, Jeffrey C., "Turkey, Islam and the EU," ''Contexts'', 8.4 (2009). * Engert, Stefan, ''EU Enlargement and Socialization: Turkey and Cyprus'' (New York: Routledge, 2010). * Esfahani, Hadi Salehi and Ceviker-Gurakar, Esra, "Fading Attraction: Turkey's Shifting Relationship with the European Union," ''The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance'', 53.4 (November 2013). * Fuller, Graham E. ''Turkey's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China''. (A Rand Study.) Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993. * Gocek, Fatma Muge. ''East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the 18th Century''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. * Goffman, Daniel. ''Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650''. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990. * International Crisis Group, "Turkey and Europe: The Way Ahead," Europe Report No. 184 (17 August 2007). * Kramer, Heinz, ''A Changing Turkey: A Challenge to Europe and the US'' (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000). * Kubicek, Paul, "Turkey's Inclusion in the Atlantic Community: Looking Back, Looking Forward," ''Turkish Studies'', 9.1 (March 2008). * Kuniholm, Bruce R. "Turkey and the West," ''Foreign Affairs'', 70, No. 2, Spring 1991, pp. 34–48. * Kuniholm, Bruce R., "Turkey and NATO," in Kaplan, L., Clawson, R. and Luraghi, R. (eds.), ''NATO and the Mediterranean'' (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1985). * McGhee, George C. "Turkey Joins the West." ''Foreign Affairs'', July 1954, pp. 617–30. * Oguzlu, Tarik, "Turkey and Europeanization of Foreign Policy?" ''Political Science Quarterly'', 125.4 (Winter 2010/2011). * Pierini, Marc, "Options for the EU–Turkey Relationship," Carnegie Europe, 3 May 2019. * Pierini, Marc and Ulgen, Sinan, "A Moment of Opportunity in the EU–Turkey Relationship," Carnegie Europe (Brussels, December 2014). * Reuther, Helmut (ed.). ''Deutschlands Aussenpolitik seit 1955''. With a contribution by Franz von Cancig, "Die Türkei, Griechenland und die deutsche Aussenpolitik." Stuttgart-Degerloch: Seewald Verlag, 1965. * Steinbach, Udo. "Turkey-ECC Relations: Cultural Dimension." pp. 13–24 in Erol Manisali, ed., ''Turkey's Place in Europe: Economic, Political, and Cultural Dimensions''. Istanbul: Ucer, 1990. * Tocci, Nathalie, "New Doubts and Uncertainties in Turkey–EU Relations," Paper, Centre for European Policy Studies (October 2000). * Narbone, Luigi and Tocci, Nathalie, "Running Around in Circles? The Cyclical Relationship Between Turkey and the European Union," in Verney, S. and Infantis, K. (eds.), ''Turkey's Road to European Union Membership: National Identity and Political Change'' (London: Routledge, 2009).

Greece–Turkey relations

* "Der Zypern-Konflikt, eine Bewahrungsprobe westlicher Friedensordnung." Europa-Archiv, 1964, pp. 713–26. * Bahcheli, Tozun. ''Greek–Turkish Relations since 1955''. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990. * Balci, Ali, "Foreign Policy as Politicking in the Sarikiz Coup Plot: Cyprus Between the Coup Plotters and the JDP," ''Middle East Critique'', 21.2 (Summer 2012). * Brus, Marcel et al., "A Promise to Keep: Time to End the International Isolation of the Turkish Cypriots," TESEV, Foreign Policy Analysis Series, No. 7 (Istanbul, June 2008). * Couloumbis, Theodore A. ''The United States, Greece, and Turkey: The Troubled Triangle''. New York: Praeger, 1983. * Engert, Stefan, ''EU Enlargement and Socialization: Turkey and Cyprus'' (New York: Routledge, 2010). * Ertekün, Necati M. ''The Cyprus Dispute and the Birth of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus''. Nicosia, Northern Cyprus: Rustem, 1984. * International Crisis Group, "Reunifying Cyprus: The Best Chance Yet," Europe Report No. 194 (23 June 2008). * International Crisis Group, "The Cyprus Stalemate: What Next?" Europe Report No. 171 (8 March 2006). * Migdalovitz, Carol, "Cyprus: Status of U.N. Negotiations and Related Issues," CRS Report (Washington, DC, 20 July 2007). * Ozcan, Gencer, "The Military and the Making of Foreign Policy in Turkey," in Kirisci, K. and Rubin, B. (eds.), ''Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multiregional Power'' (London: Lynne Rienner, 2001). * Pipinelis, Panayotis. "The Greco-Turkish Feud Revived." ''Foreign Affairs'', January 1959, pp. 306–16. * Psomiades, Harry J. ''The Eastern Question: The Last Phase. A Study in Greek Turkish Diplomacy''. Salonika (Greece): Institute for Balkan Studies, 1968. * Qicek, Kemal. "Living Together: Muslim-Christian Relations in 18th-Century Cyprus as Reflected by the Shari'a Court Record," ''Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations'' irmingham, United Kingdom 4, No. 1, 1993. * Sozen, Ahmet, "The Cyprus Challenge in Turkey–EU Relations: Heading Towards the Defining Moment?" in Cengiz, F. and Hoffmann, L. (eds.), ''Turkey and the European Union: Facing New Challenges and Opportunities'' (London: Routledge, 2014). * Stearns, Monteagle. ''Entangled Allies: US Policy toward Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus''. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1992. * Turkeş, Alpaslan. ''Dış Politikamız ve Kıbrıs'' (''Our Foreign Policy and Cyprus''). Istanbul: Publication of the Istanbul Cypriote-Turkish Society, 1966.

Middle East–Turkey relations

* Ayoob, Mohammed, "Beyond the Democratic Wave in the Arab World: The Middle East's Turko-Persian Future," ''Insight Turkey'', 13.2 (2011). * Bank, André and Karadag, Roy, "The 'Ankara Moment': The Politics of Turkey's Regional Power in the Middle East," ''Third World Quarterly'', 34.2 (2013). * Bengio, Ofra and Ozcan, Gencer, "Old Grievances, New Fears: Arab Perceptions of Turkey and Its Alignment with Israel," ''Middle Eastern Studies'', 37.2 (April 2001). * Bolukbasi, Suha. "Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and the Euphrates Dam," ''Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies'', 16, No. 4, June 1993, pp. 9–32. * Brummett, Palmira. ''Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. * Burton, J.A. "Relations Between the Khanate of Bukhara and Ottoman Turkey, 1558–1702," ''International Journal of Turkish Studies'', 5, 1990–91, pp. 83–103. * Fuller, Graham, The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2008). * Haddad, Benjamin, "Time for Turkey and Europe to Face Reality: Turkey Is Not Going to Join the EU. And That Is OK," ''Foreign Policy'', 23 May 3016. * Nafi, Basheer M., "The Arabs and Modern Turkey: A Century of Changing Perceptions," ''Insight Turkey'', 11.1 (2009). * Hale, William M. "Turkey, the Middle East, and the Gulf Crisis," ''International Affairs'' ondon 68, No. 2, Spring 1992, pp. 679–692. * International Crisis Group, "Turkey and the Middle East: Ambitions and Constraints," Europe Report No. 203 (7 April 2010). * Jennings, Ronald C. ''Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean World, 1571–1640''. New York: New York University Press, 1993. * Karpat, Kemal H., "Turkish and Arab-Israeli Relations," in Karpat, K. (ed.), ''Turkey's Foreign Policy in Transition'' (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). * Kirisci, Kemal, Tocci, Nathalie, and Walker, Joshua, "A Neighborhood Rediscovered: Turkey's Transatlantic Value in the Middle East," The German Marshall Fund of the United States, Paper Series (Washington, DC, 2010). * Kirisci, Kemal, "The EU, Turkey and the Arab Spring: Challenges and Opportunities for Regional Integration," IAI/IPC, Global Turkey in Europe, Working Paper 1 (2012). * Kirisci, Kemal and Winrow, Gareth M., ''The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict'' (London: Frank Cass, 1997). * Levy, Aviador. ''The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire''. Princeton: Darwin Press and Washington: Institute of Turkish Studies, 1992. * Robins, Philip. ''Turkey and the Middle East''. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs and New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991. * Sayari, Sabri. "Turkey: The Changing European Security Environment and the Gulf Crisis," ''Middle East Journal'', 46, No. 1, Winter 1992, pp. 9–21. * Shaw, Stanford. ''The Jews of the Ottoman Emire and Modern Turkey''. New York: New York University Press, 1991.

Russia–Turkey relations and the Turkish Straits

* "The Turkish Straits in the Light of Recent Turkish-Soviet Russian Correspondence." ''American Journal of International Law'', October 1947, pp. 727–47. * Bayazit, Vural. "Black Sea and Mediterranean Challenges for the Turkish Navy," NATO's Sixteen Nations russels 39, January 1994, pp. 67–69. * DeLuca, Anthony R. ''The Great Power Rivalry at the Turkish Straits: The Montreux Conference and the Convention of 1936''. (East European Monographs.) Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981. * Dranov, B. Chernomorskie ''Prolivy-Mezhdunarodno-pravovoi rezhim'' (''The Black Sea Straits-International-legal regime''). Moscow: Yurid, izd-vo, 1948. * Edmonds, Martin, and John Skitt. "Current Soviet Maritime Strategy and NATO." ''International Affairs'', January 1969, pp. 28–43. * Eren, Nuri. "Die türkisch-sowjetischen Beziehungen." Europa-Archiv, September 1965, pp. 337–48. * Erkin, Feridun Cerna. ''Les Relations Turco-Soviétiques et la Question des Detroits''. Ankara: Banur Matbaas1, 1968. * Esmer, Ahmed Şükrü. "The Straits: Crux of World Politics." ''Foreign Affairs'', January 1947, pp. 290–302. * Fernau, Friedrich-Wilhelm. "Nachbarschaft am Schwarzen Meer. Wendepunkte in den türkisch-sowjetischen Beziehungen." Europa-Archiv, September 1967, pp. 613–20. * Howard, Harry N. "The United States and the Question of the Turkish Straits." ''Middle East Journal'', January 1947, pp. 59–72. * Hurewitz, J. C. ''The Background of Russia's Claims to the Turkish Straits''. Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1964. * Imhoff, Christoph von. ''Duell in Mittelmeer: Moskau greift nach dem Nahen und Mittleren Osten''. Freiburg i. Br.: Rombach, 1968. * Rohn, Peter H. "Turkish Treaties in Global Perspective." ''Turkish Yearbook of International Relations'', 1965, pp. n9-60. * Routh, D. A. "The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Black Sea Straits." Survey of International Affairs, 1936. London: Oxford University Press, 1937. * Sadak, Necmeddin. "Turkey Faces the Soviets." ''Foreign Affairs'', April 1949, pp. 449–461. * Shotwell, James T., and Francis Deak. ''Turkey at the Straits: A Short History''. New York: Macmillan, 1940. * Yanik, Lerna. "Allies or Partners An Appraisal of Turkey's Ties to Russia 1991–2007", ''East European Quarterly'' 41#3 (2007), pp. 349–370.

Turkey–Turkic world relations

* Contessi, Nicola P. "Turkey and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: Common values, economics or pure geopolitics?" in Emre Erşen, Seçkin Köstem, eds. ''Turkey's Pivot to Eurasia. Geopolitics and Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order'', (Routledge, 2019), pp. 93–110. * Gokalp, Ziya. ''The Principles of Turkism''. Trans., Robert Devereux. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1968. * Kubilay Yado Arin. ''The AKP's Foreign Policy, Turkey's Reorientation from the West to the East?'' (Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, 2013). * Landau, Jacob M. ''Pan-Turkism in Turkey: A Study of Irredentism''. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1981. * Robins, Philip. "Between Sentiment and Self-interest: Turkey's Policy toward Azerbaijan and the Central Asian States," ''Middle East Journal'', 47, No. 4, Autumn 1993, pp. 593–610.

Turkey–United States relations

* Armaoglu, Fahir H. "Turkey and the United States: A New Alliance." ''The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations'', 1965, pp. 1–15. * Aybet, Gülnur. ''Turkey's Foreign Policy and Its Implications for the West: A Turkish Perspective''. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1994. * Barkey, Henri. "Turkish-American Relations in the Post-War Era: An Alliance of Convenience," ''Orient'' everkusen, Germany 33, No. 3, 1992, pp. 447–464. * Barlas, Dilek, and Şuhnaz Yilmaz. "Managing the transition from Pax Britannica to Pax Americana: Turkey's relations with Britain and the US in a turbulent era (1929–47)." ''Turkish Studies'' (2016): pp. 1–25. * Bolukbasi, Suha. ''The Superpowers and the Third World: Turkish–American Relations and Cyprus''. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1988. * Couloumbis, Theodore A. ''The United States, Greece, and Turkey: The Troubled Triangle''. New York: Praeger, 1983. * Yilmaz, Şuhnaz. ''Turkish-American Relations, 1800–1952: Between the Stars, Stripes and the Crescent'' (Routledge, 2015).

Foreign relations (1923–1945)

* "Türk Dış Politikasına Yon Veren Etkenler (1923–1968)" ("Controlling Factors of Turkish Foreign Policy, 1923–1968"). ''Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi'' (''Review of the Political Science Faculty''), 23 (1968). * Ataöv, Türkkaya. "Turkish Foreign Policy: 1923–1938." ''Turkish Yearbook of International Relations'', 1961, pp. 103–42. * Ataöv, Türkkaya. ''Turkish Foreign Policy, 1939–1945''. Ankara: Publication of the Faculty of Political Sciences of the University of Ankara, 1965. * Hale, William. ''Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774'' (Routledge, 2012). * Howard, Harry N. ''The Partition of Turkey: A Diplomatic History, 1913–1923''. New York: Ferig, 1966. * Kohn, Hans. "Ten Years of the Turkish Republic." ''Foreign Affairs'', October 1933, pp. 141–155. * Sousa, Nasim. ''The Capitulatory Regime of Turkey: Its History, Origin, and Nature''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. * Vere-Hodge, Edward Reginald. ''Turkish Foreign Policy, 1918–1948''. Ambilly Annemasse: Imprimerie Franco-Suisse, 1950.

Foreign relations (1945–2002)

* Abramowitz, Morton. "Dateline Ankara: Turkey after Özal," ''Foreign Policy'', No. 91, 1993, pp. 164–81. * Balci, Ali and Mis, Nebi, "Turkey's Role in the Alliance of Civilizations: A New Perspective in Turkish Foreign Policy?" ''Turkish Studies'', 9.3 (September 2008). * Batu, Hamit. "La politique étrangère de la Turquie." ''Turkish Yearbook of International Relations'', 1964, pp. 1–12. * Black, Joseph E., and Kenneth W. Thompson (eds.). ''Foreign Policies in a World of Change''. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. With a contribution by Nuri Eren, "The Foreign Policy of Turkey." * Danforth, Nicholas. 2021.
The Remaking of Republican Turkey: Memory and Modernity since the Fall of the Ottoman Empire
'. Cambridge University Press. *Deshocquets, Claude. "La Turquie de 1960 et la stratégie globale." ''Revue de Defense Nationale'', 17 (1961), pp. 222–236. * Dodd, Clement H., ed. ''Turkish Foreign Policy: New Prospects''. Huntingdon, United Kingdom: Eothen Press, 1992. * Hale, William. ''Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774'' (Routledge, 2012). * Hartmann, Hans Walter. ''Die auswärtige Politik der Türkei'', pp. 923–940. Zurich: Leemann & Co., 1999. * Karpat, Kemal H. (ed.), ''Turkey's Foreign Policy in Transition'' (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). * Kirisci, Kemal and Rubin, Barry (eds.), ''Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multiregional Power'' (London: Lynne Rienner, 2001). * Robins, Philip, "Turkish Foreign Policy Under Erbakan," ''Survival'', 39.2 (Summer 1997). * Rouleau, Eric. "The Challenges to Turkey," ''Foreign Affairs'', 72, No. 5, November–December 1993, pp. 110–126.

Foreign relations (2002–present)

* Duran, Burhanettin, "JDP and Foreign Policy as an Agent of Transformation," in Yavuz, H.M. (ed.), ''The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the AK Party (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2006). * Dursun-Özkanca, Ova. 2019. '' Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-Alliance Opposition''. Cambridge University Press. * Hale, William. ''Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774'' (Routledge, 2012). * Kirisci, Kemal, "Turkey's Foreign Policy in Turbulent Times," Chaillot Paper 92 (Paris, EUISS, 2006). * Kutlay, Mustafa, "Economy as the 'Practical Hand' of 'New Turkish Foreign Policy': A Political Economy Explanation," ''Insight Turkey'', 13.1 (2011). * Renda, Kadri Kaan, "Turkey's Neighborhood Policy: An Emerging Complex Interdependence?" ''Insight Turkey'', 13.1 (2011). * Sandole, Dennis J.D., "Turkey's Unique Role in Nipping in the Bud the 'Clash of Civilizations'," ''International Politics'', 46.5 (September 2009). * Schenkkan, Nate, Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia and Emerging Threats, Foreign Affairs Committee, United States House of Representatives, Hearings on "The Future of Turkish Democracy," 15 July 2014.

External links

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkey

Örmeci, Ozan & Işıksal, Hüseyin (2015), Turkish Foreign Policy in the New Millennium, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang
{{Foreign relations of Asia Euromediterranean Partnership