.svg.html){kind=link}
Xinjiang (Chinese characters).svg on:
[Wikipedia]
[Google]
[Amazon]
Xinjiang,; ug, شىنجاڭ, SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the Northwest China, northwest of the country at the crossroads of Central Asia and East Asia. Being the List of Chinese administrative divisions by area, largest province-level division of China by area and the List of the largest country subdivisions by area, 8th-largest country subdivision in the world, Xinjiang spans over and has about 25 million inhabitants. Xinjiang Borders of China, borders the countries of Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and India. The rugged Karakoram, Kunlun Mountains, Kunlun and Tian Shan mountain ranges occupy much of Xinjiang's borders, as well as its western and southern regions. The Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract regions are claimed by India but administered by China. "divided between India and CHINA" Xinjiang also borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and the provinces of Gansu and Qinghai. The most well-known route of the historic Silk Road ran through the territory from the east to its northwestern border.
Xinjiang is divided into the Junggar Basin, Dzungarian Basin (Dzungaria) in the north and the Tarim Basin in the south by a mountain range and only about 9.7 percent of Xinjiang's land area is fit for human habitation. It is home to a number of ethnic groups, including the Tajiks of Xinjiang, Chinese Tajiks (Pamiris), Han Chinese, Hui people, Hui, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz people, Kyrgyz, Mongols in China, Mongols, Russians in China, Russians, Sibe people, Sibe, Tibetan people, Tibetans, and Uyghurs. There are more than a dozen autonomous prefectures and counties for minorities in Xinjiang. Older English-language reference works often refer to the area as Chinese Turkestan, Chinese Turkistan, East Turkestan and East Turkistan.
With a documented history of at least 2,500 years, a succession of people and empires have vied for control over all or parts of this territory. The territory came under the rule of the Qing dynasty in the 18th century, which was later replaced by the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China. Since 1949 and the Chinese Civil War, it has been part of the People's Republic of China. In 1954, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) established the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC) to strengthen border defense against the Soviet Union and promote the local economy by settling soldiers into the region. In 1955, Xinjiang was administratively changed from a Xinjiang Province, province into an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region. In recent decades, abundant oil and mineral reserves have been found in Xinjiang and it is currently China's largest natural-gas-producing region.
From the 1990s to the 2010s, the East Turkestan independence movement, Xinjiang conflict, separatist conflict and the influence of Islamic extremism, radical Islam have resulted in unrest in the region with Terrorism in China#Xinjiang, occasional terrorist attacks and clashes between separatist and government forces. These conflicts prompted the Government of China, Chinese government to commit a Persecution of Uyghurs in China, series of ongoing human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in the province including, according to some, genocide.
ᠤᠶᠢᠭᠤᠷ
ᠤᠨ
ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠡᠨ
ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ
ᠣᠷᠤᠨ , monr = Sinjiyaŋ Uyiɣur-un öbertegen jasaqu orun
(Classical)
{{longitem, Shin'jyan Uiguryn öörtöö zasakh oron (Khalkha) , uig = {{big, شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى , uly = {{nowrap, Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayoni , uyy = {{nowrap, Xinjang Uyƣur Aptonom Rayoni , sgs = {{nowrap, Xinjang Uyĝur Aptonom Rayoni , usy = Шинҗаң Уйғур Аптоном Райони , lang1 = kk , lang1_content = {{nowrap, {{lang, kk-Arab, شينجياڭ ۇيعۇر اۆتونوميالىق رايونى
{{lang, kk, Шыңжаң Ұйғыр автономиялық ауданы
{{lang, kk-Latn, Shyńjań Uıǵyr aýtonomııalyq aýdany , lang2 = ky , lang2_content = {{nowrap, {{lang, ky-Arab, شئنجاڭ ۇيعۇر اپتونوم رايونۇ
{{lang, ky, Шинжаң-Уйгур автоном району
{{lang, ky-Latn, Şincañ-Uyğur avtonom rayonu , lang3 = xal , lang3_content = {{MongolUnicode, ᠱᡅᠨᡓᡅᡕᠠᡊ
ᡇᡕᡅᡎᡇᠷ
ᡅᠨ
ᡄᡋᡄᠷᡄᡃᠨ
ᠴᠠᠰᠠᡍᡇ
ᡆᠷᡇᠨ, style=max-height:5em; word-wrap:normal
Šinǰiyang Uyiγur-in ebereen zasaqu orun , order = st , s = , t = , mnc = {{ManchuSibeUnicode, ᡳᠴᡝ
ᠵᡝᠴᡝᠨ
ᡠᡳᡤᡠᡵ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᠩᡤᠠ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ , mnc_v = Ice Jecen Uigur beye dasangga golo , lang4 = sjo , lang4_content = {{MongolUnicode, ᠰᡞᠨᡪᠶᠠᡢ
ᡠᡞᡤᡠᠷ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᡢᡤᠠ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ, style=max-height:4em; word-wrap:normal
Sinjyang Uigur beye dasangga golo , lang5 = srh , lang5_content = {{lang, srh-Arab, شىنجوڭ ئۈىغۈر ئوفتۇنۇم رايۇن
{{lang, srh, Xinjong Üighür Oftunum Rayun{{efn, name="Sarikoli", There is no official orthography for Sarikoli in China. This is the spelling used in the Sarikoli-Chinese dictionary written by linguist Gao Erqiang. The general region of Xinjiang has been known by many different names throughout time. These names include Altishahr, the historical Uyghur language, Uyghur name for the southern half of the region referring to "the six cities" of the Tarim Basin, as well as Khotan, Khotay, Chinese Tartary, High Tartary, East Chagatay (it was the eastern part of the Chagatai Khanate), Moghulistan ("land of the Mongols"), Kashgaria, Little Bokhara, Serindia (due to Indian cultural influence){{sfnp, Tyler, 2004,
3
} and, in Chinese, ''Xiyu'' ({{lang, zh, 西域), meaning "Western Regions".{{sfnp, Hill, 2009, pp=xviii, 60 Between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE, the Han Empire established the Protectorate of the Western Regions or Xiyu Protectorate ({{lang, zh-hant, 西域都護府) in an effort to secure the profitable routes of the Silk Road. The Western Regions during the Tang dynasty, Tang era were known as ''Qixi'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 磧西). Qi refers to the Gobi Desert while Xi refers to the west. The Tang Empire had established the ''Protectorate General to Pacify the West'' or ''Anxi Protectorate'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 安西都護府) in 640 to control the region. During the Qing dynasty, the northern part of Xinjiang, Dzungaria was known as Zhunbu ({{lang, zh-hant, 準部, "Dzungar people, Dzungar region") and the Southern Tarim Basin was known as ''Huijiang'' ({{lang, zh, 回疆, "Muslim Frontier"). Both regions merged after Qing dynasty suppressed the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas in 1759 and became the region of "Xiyu Xinjiang" ({{lang, zh-hant, 西域新疆, literally "Western Regions' New Frontier"), later simplified as "Xinjiang" ({{lang, zh-hant, 新疆; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanized as "Sinkiang"). The official name was given during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor in 1878. It can be translated as "new frontier" or "new territory". In fact, the term "Xinjiang" was used in many other places conquered, but never were ruled by Chinese empires directly until the gradual ''Tusi#Gaitu Guiliu, Gaitu Guiliu'' administrative reform, including regions in Southern China. For instance, present-day Jinchuan County in Sichuan was then known as "Jinchuan Xinjiang", Zhaotong in Yunnan was named directly as "Xinjiang", Qiandongnan region, Anshun and Zhenning Buyei and Miao Autonomous County, Zhenning were named as "Liangyou Xinjiang" etc. In 1955, Xinjiang Province was renamed "Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region". The name that was originally proposed was simply "Xinjiang Autonomous Region" because that was the name for the imperial territory. This proposal was not well-received by Uyghurs in the Communist Party, who found the name colonialist in nature since it meant "new territory". Saifuddin Azizi, the first chairman of Xinjiang, registered his strong objections to the proposed name with Mao Zedong, arguing that "autonomy is not given to mountains and rivers. It is given to particular nationalities." Some Uyghur Communists proposed the name "Tian Shan Uyghur Autonomous Region" instead. The Han Communists in the central government denied the name Xinjiang was colonialist and denied that the central government could be colonialists both because they were communists and because China was a victim of colonialism. However, due to the Uyghur complaints, the administrative region would be named "Xinjiang ''Uygur'' Autonomous Region".{{sfnp, Bovingdon, 2010, p=199{{cite podcast , url=https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/episode-39-ethnicity-tibet-and-xinjiang-in-the-prc/id1337064684?i=1000446900247, title= Episode 39: Ethnicity, Tibet, and Xinjiang in the PRC, website=podcasts.apple.com, publisher=Beyond Huaxia: A College History of China and Japan, host=Justin M. Jacobs, date=14 August 2019, time=60:00–62:18, access-date=19 March 2022
Xinjiang consists of two main geographically, historically and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names, Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, before Qing China unified them into one political entity called Xinjiang Province in 1884. At the time of the Qing conquest in 1759, Dzungaria was inhabited by steppe dwelling, nomadic Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhist Dzungar people, while the Tarim Basin was inhabited by sedentary, oasis dwelling, Turkic-speaking Muslim farmers, now known as the Uyghurs, who were governed separately until 1884.
The Qing dynasty was well aware of the differences between the former Buddhist Mongol area to the north of the Tian Shan and the Turkic Muslim area south of the Tian Shan and ruled them in separate administrative units at first.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
69
} However, Qing people began to think of both areas as part of one distinct region called Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
70
} The very concept of Xinjiang as one distinct geographic identity was created by the Qing.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
67
} During the Qing rule, no sense of "regional identity" was held by ordinary Xinjiang people; rather, Xinjiang's distinct identity was given to the region by the Qing, since it had distinct geography, history and culture, while at the same time it was created by the Chinese, multicultural, settled by Han and Hui and separated from Central Asia for over a century and a half.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
77
} In the late 19th century, it was still being proposed by some people that two separate regions be created out of Xinjiang, the area north of the Tianshan and the area south of the Tianshan, while it was being argued over whether to turn Xinjiang into a province.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
78
} Xinjiang is a large, sparsely populated area, spanning over 1.6 million km2 (comparable in size to Iran), which takes up about one sixth of the country's territory. Xinjiang borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and India's Leh district in Ladakh to the south, Qinghai and Gansu provinces to the east, Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii Province, Bayan-Ölgii, Govi-Altai Province, Govi-Altai and Khovd Provinces) to the east, Russia's Altai Republic to the north and Kazakhstan (Almaty Region, Almaty and East Kazakhstan Regions), Kyrgyzstan (Issyk-Kul Region, Issyk-Kul, Naryn Region, Naryn and Osh Regions), Tajikistan's Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, Afghanistan's Badakhshan Province and Pakistan's Gilgit-Baltistan to the west. The east-west chain of the Tian Shan separate Dzungaria in the north from the Tarim Basin in the south. Dzungaria is a dry steppe and the Tarim Basin contains the massive Taklamakan Desert, surrounded by oases. In the east is the Turpan Depression. In the west, the Tian Shan split, forming the Ili River valley. {{clear left
The earliest inhabitants of the region encompassing modern day Xinjiang were genetically of Ancient North Eurasian and East Asian people, Northeast Asian origin, with later geneflow from during the Bronze Age linked to the expansion of early Indo-European languages, Indo-Europeans. These population dynamics gave rise to a heterogeneous demographic makeup. Iron Age samples from Xinjiang show intensified levels of admixture between Steppe pastoralists and northeast Asians, with northern and eastern Xinjiang showing more affinities with northeast Asians, and southern Xinjiang showing more affinity with central Asians.
Between 2009 and 2015, the remains of 92 individuals in the Xiaohe Cemetery were analyzed for Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA markers. Genetic analyses of the mummies showed that the paternal lineages of the Xiaohe people were of European{{cite book , last1=Betts , first1=Allison , title=The Cultures of Ancient Xinjiang, western China: Crossroads of the Silk Roads , date=2019 , publisher=Archaeopress , location=Summertown, Oxford , isbn=978-1-78969-407-9 , page=50 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxUSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 "The first settlers had European paternal lineages, and maternal lineages of European and Siberian origin." [...] "a pattern that continued in to Xiaohe Phase II, in layers 3, 2 and 1, where the genes show greater mixing still (Li, et al. 2015). The origin of the mitochondrial lineages is more widespread, with the presence of west Eurasian, east Eurasian and Indian lineages." [...] "This may account for the marked genetic change over time in the Xiaohe population (Li 2010, Li, et al. 2010, Li et al. 2015)." The later Xiaohe people carried diverse east Eurasian maternal lineages, including a dominance of C4 and C5, generally linked to southern Siberia." origin, while the maternal lineages of the early population were diverse, featuring both Genetic history of East Asians, East Eurasian and Genetic history of Europe, West Eurasian lineages, as well as a small number of Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia, Indian lineages. Over time, the west Eurasian maternal lineages were gradually replaced by east Eurasian maternal lineages. This implies a pattern of outmarriage to women from Siberian communities, which, over many hundreds of years, led to the loss of the original diversity of Mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA lineages observed in the earlier Xiaohe population.{{cite book , last1=Schurr , first1=Theodore , title=Globalization , date=2015 , publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology , location=Philadelphia , isbn=978-1-934536-78-0 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DD94BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 "In this regard, genetic data have recently been discovered from individuals interred in the Xiaohe cemetery from the Tarim Basin. Interestingly, they were shown to have both East Eurasian and West Eurasian mtDNA lineages, but only West Eurasian NRY lineages (Li et al 2010)."{{cite journal , author1=Chunxiang Li , author2=Hongjie Li , author3=Yinqiu Cui , author4=Chengzhi Xie , author5=Dawei Cai , author6=Wenying Li , author7=Victor H Mair , author8=Zhi Xu , author9=Quanchao Zhang , author10=Idelis Abuduresule , author11=Li Jin , author12=Hong Zhu , author13=Hui Zhou , title=Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age , journal=BMC Biology , volume=8 , issue=15 , page=15, year=2010, pmid=20163704 , pmc=2838831 , doi=10.1186/1741-7007-8-15 , doi-access=free
The Tarim population was therefore always notably diverse, reflecting a complex history of admixture between people of Ancient North Eurasian, South Asian and East Asian people, Northeast Asian descent. The Tarim mummies have been found in various locations in the Western Tarim Basin such as Loulan Kingdom, Loulan, the Xiaohe Cemetery, Xiaohe Tomb complex and Qäwrighul culture, Qäwrighul. These mummies have been previously suggested to have been Tocharian or Indo-European speakers, but recent evidence suggest that the earliest mummies belonged to a distinct population unrelated to Indo-European pastoralists and spoke an unknown language, probably a language isolate.{{Cite journal, last1=Zhang, first1=Fan, last2=Ning, first2=Chao, last3=Scott, first3=Ashley, last4=Fu, first4=Qiaomei, last5=Bjørn, first5=Rasmus, last6=Li, first6=Wenying, last7=Wei, first7=Dong, last8=Wang, first8=Wenjun, last9=Fan, first9=Linyuan, last10=Abuduresule, first10=Idilisi, last11=Hu, first11=Xingjun, date=November 2021, title=The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies, journal=Nature, language=en, volume=599, issue=7884, pages=256–261, doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7, issn=1476-4687, pmc=8580821, pmid=34707286, bibcode=2021Natur.599..256Z, quote=Using qpAdm, we modelled the Tarim Basin individuals as a mixture of two ancient autochthonous Asian genetic groups: the ANE, represented by an Upper Palaeolithic individual from the Afontova Gora site in the upper Yenisei River region of Siberia (AG3) (about 72%), and ancient Northeast Asians, represented by Baikal_EBA (about 28%) (Supplementary Data 1E and Fig. 3a). Tarim_EMBA2 from Beifang can also be modelled as a mixture of Tarim_EMBA1 (about 89%) and Baikal_EBA (about 11%).
Although many of the Tarim mummies were classified as Caucasoid by anthropologists, Tarim Basin sites also contain both "Caucasoid" and "Mongoloid" remains, indicating contact between newly arrived western nomads and agricultural communities in the east. Mummies have been found in various locations in the Western Tarim Basin such as Loulan Kingdom, Loulan, the Xiaohe Cemetery, Xiaohe Tomb complex and Qäwrighul culture, Qäwrighul.
Nomadic tribes such as the Yuezhi, Saka and Wusun were probably part of the migration of Indo-European speakers who had settled in Western Central Asia long before the Xiongnu and Han Chinese. By the time the Han dynasty under Emperor Wu of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) wrested the western Tarim Basin away from its previous overlords (the Xiongnu), it was inhabited by various peoples who included the Proto-Indo-Europeans, Indo-European-speaking Tocharians in Turfan and Kucha, the Saka peoples centered in the Shule Kingdom and the Kingdom of Khotan, the various Tibeto-Burman languages, Tibeto-Burmese groups (especially people related to the Qiang people, Qiang) as well as the Han Chinese people.{{cite book, first=Xavier, last=Tremblay, year=2007, chapter=The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century, editor1=Ann Heirman, name-list-style=amp, editor2=Stephan Peter Bumbacker, title=The Spread of Buddhism, location=Leiden & Boston, publisher=Koninklijke Brill, page=77, isbn=978-90-04-15830-6 Some linguists posit that the Tocharian language had high amounts of influence from Paleosiberian languages, such as Uralic languages, Uralic and Yeniseian languages.
Yuezhi culture is documented in the region. The first known reference to the Yuezhi was in 645 BC by the Chinese chancellor Guan Zhong in his work, ''Guanzi (text), Guanzi'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 管子, Guanzi Essays: 73: 78: 80: 81). He described the ''Yúshì'', {{lang, zh-hant, 禺氏 (or ''Niúshì'', {{lang, zh, 牛氏), as a people from the north-west who supplied jade to the Chinese from the nearby mountains (also known as Yushi) in Gansu. The longtime jade supply from the Tarim Basin is well-documented archaeologically: "It is well known that ancient Chinese rulers had a strong attachment to jade. All of the jade items excavated from the tomb of Fuhao of the Shang dynasty, more than 750 pieces, were from Hotan, Khotan in modern Xinjiang. As early as the mid-first millennium BC, the Yuezhi engaged in the jade trade, of which the major consumers were the rulers of agricultural China."
Crossed by the Northern Silk Road, the Tarim and Dzungaria regions were known as the Western Regions. At the beginning of the Han dynasty (206 BC{{snd220 AD) the region was ruled by the Xiongnu, a powerful nomadic people based in present-day Mongolia. During the 2nd century BC, the Han dynasty prepared for Han–Xiongnu War, war against Xiongnu when Emperor Wu of Han dispatched Zhang Qian to explore the mysterious kingdoms to the west and form an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu. As a result of the war, the Chinese controlled the strategic region from the Ordos Loop, Ordos and Gansu Hexi Corridor, corridor to Lop Nor. They separated the Xiongnu from the Qiang people on the south and gained direct access to the Western Regions. Han China sent Zhang Qian as an envoy to the states of the region, beginning several decades of struggle between the Xiongnu and Han China in which China eventually prevailed. In 60 BC, Han China established the Protectorate of the Western Regions ({{lang, zh-hant, 西域都護府) at Wulei ({{lang, zh-hant, 烏壘, near modern Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Luntai), to oversee the region as far west as the Pamir Mountains. The protectorate was seized during the civil war against Wang Mang (r. AD 9–23), returning to Han control in 91 due to the efforts of general Ban Chao.
The Western Jin dynasty (265–420), Jin dynasty succumbed to successive waves of invasions by nomads from the north at the beginning of the 4th century. The short-lived kingdoms that ruled northwestern China one after the other, including Former Liang, Former Qin, Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms), Later Liang and Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms), Western Liáng, all attempted to maintain the protectorate, with varying degrees of success. After the final reunification of Northern China under the Northern Wei empire, its protectorate controlled what is now the southeastern region of Xinjiang. Local states such as Shule, Yutian County, Xinjiang, Yutian, Guizi and Qiemo County, Qiemo controlled the western region, while the central region around Turpan was controlled by Gaochang, remnants of a state (Northern Liang) that once ruled part of what is now Gansu province in northwestern China.
During the Tang dynasty, a Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, series of expeditions were conducted against the Western Turkic Khaganate and their vassals: the oasis states of southern Xinjiang. Emperor Taizong's campaign against Xiyu states, Campaigns against the oasis states began under Emperor Taizong of Tang, Emperor Taizong with the Tang campaign against Karakhoja, annexation of Gaochang in 640.{{cite book , first2=Howard J. , last2=Wechsler , first1=Denis , last1=Twitchett , chapter=Kao-tsung (reign 649-83) and the Empress Wu: The Inheritor and the Usurper , editor1 = Denis Twitchett , editor2=John Fairbank , title = The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China Part I , year=1979 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=978-0-521-21446-9 , page=228 The nearby kingdom of Karasahr was Tang campaigns against Karasahr, captured by the Tang in 644 and the kingdom of Kucha was Conquest of Kucha, conquered in 649.{{cite book , first=Jonathan Karem , last=Skaff , editor=Nicola Di Cosmo , title=Military Culture in Imperial China , year=2009 , publisher=Harvard University Press , isbn=978-0-674-03109-8 , pages=183–185 The Tang Dynasty then established the Protectorate General to Pacify the West ({{lang, zh-Hant, 安西都護府) or Anxi Protectorate, in 640 to control the region.
During the Anshi Rebellion, which nearly destroyed the Tang dynasty, Tibetan Empire, Tibet invaded the Tang on a broad front from Xinjiang to Yunnan. It occupied the Tang capital of Chang'an in 763 for 16 days, and controlled southern Xinjiang by the end of the century. The Uyghur Khaganate took control of Northern Xinjiang, much of Central Asia and Mongolia at the same time.
As Tibet and the Uyghur Khaganate declined in the mid-9th century, the Kara-Khanid Khanate (a confederation of Turkic tribes including the Karluks, Chigils and Yaghmas){{cite book , title = A history of Inner Asia , first = Svatopluk , last = Soucek , chapter = Chapter 5 – The Qarakhanids , publisher = Cambridge University Press , year = 2000 , isbn = 978-0-521-65704-4 , chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofinneras00souc controlled Western Xinjiang during the 10th and 11th centuries. After the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia was destroyed by the Kirghiz in 840, branches of the Uyghurs established themselves in Gaochang, Qocha (Karakhoja) and Beshbalik (near present-day Turfan and Ürümqi). The Uyghur state remained in eastern Xinjiang until the 13th century, although it was ruled by foreign overlords. The Kara-Khanids converted to Islam. The Uyghur state in Eastern Xinjiang, initially Manichaeism, Manichean, later converted to Buddhism.
Remnants of the Liao dynasty from Manchuria entered Xinjiang in 1132, fleeing rebellion by the neighboring Jurchens. They established a new empire, the Qara Khitai (Western Liao), which ruled the Kara-Khanid and Uyghur-held parts of the Tarim Basin for the next century. Although Khitan language, Khitan and Chinese were the primary administrative languages, Persian and Uyghur were also used.
15
} with Caucasian mummies found in the region.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
16
} The area became Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin, Islamified during the 10th century with the conversion of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, who occupied Kashgar. During the mid-10th century, the Saka Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan was attacked by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanid ruler Musa; the Karakhanid leader Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan around 1006.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
55
}
After Genghis Khan unified Mongolia and began his advance west the Uyghur state in the Turpan-Urumchi region offered its allegiance to the Mongols in 1209, contributing taxes and troops to the Mongol imperial effort. In return, the Uyghur rulers retained control of their kingdom; Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire conquered the Qara Khitai in 1218. Xinjiang was a stronghold of Ögedei Khan and later came under the control of his descendant, Kaidu. This branch of the Mongol family kept the Yuan dynasty at bay until their rule ended.
During the Mongol Empire era the Yuan dynasty vied with the Chagatai Khanate for rule of the region and the latter controlled most of it. After the Chagatai Khanate divided into smaller khanates during the mid-14th century, the politically-fractured region was ruled by a number of Persianized Mongol Khans, including those from Moghulistan (with the assistance of local Dughlats, Dughlat emirs), Uigurstan (later Turpan) and Kashgaria. These leaders warred with each other and the Timurid Empire, Timurids of Transoxiana to the west and the Oirats to the east: the successor Chagatai regime based in Mongolia and China. During the 17th century, the Dzungars established an empire over much of the region.
The Mongolian Dzungars were the collective identity of several Oirat tribes which formed and maintained, one of the last nomadic empires. The Dzungar Khanate covered Dzungaria, extending from the western Great Wall of China to present-day Eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day Northern Kyrgyzstan to Southern Siberia. Most of the region was renamed "Xinjiang" by the Chinese after the fall of the Dzungar Empire, which existed from the early 17th to the mid-18th century.
The sedentary Turkic Muslims of the Tarim Basin were originally ruled by the Chagatai Khanate and the nomadic Buddhist Oirat Mongols in Dzungaria ruled the Dzungar Khanate. The Naqshbandi Sufi Khoja (Turkestan), Khojas, descendants of Muhammad, had replaced the Chagatayid Khans as rulers of the Tarim Basin during the early 17th century. There was a struggle between two Khoja factions: the Afaqi (White Mountain) and the Ishaqi (Black Mountain). The Ishaqi defeated the Afaqi and the Afaq Khoja invited the 5th Dalai Lama (the leader of the Tibetan people, Tibetans) to intervene on his behalf in 1677. The Dalai Lama then called on his Dzungar Buddhist followers in the Dzungar Khanate to act on the invitation. The Dzungar Khanate conquered the Tarim Basin in 1680, setting up the Afaqi Khoja as their puppet ruler. After converting to Islam, the descendants of the previously-Qocho, Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" (Dzungars) built Buddhist monuments in their region.{{cite book, author1=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, author2=Bernard Lewis, author3=Johannes Hendrik Kramers, author4=Charles Pellat, author5=Joseph Schacht, title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJPrAAAAMAAJ, year=1998, publisher=Brill, page=677, access-date=10 July 2015, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=PJPrAAAAMAAJ, archive-date=1 January 2016, url-status=live
The Turkic Muslims of the Turfan and Hami, Kumul oases then submitted to the Qing dynasty and asked China to free them from the Dzungars; the Qing accepted their rulers as vassals. They warred against the Dzungars for decades before defeating them; Qing Manchu Eight Banners, Bannermen then conducted the Dzungar genocide, nearly eradicating them and depopulating Dzungaria. The Qing freed the Afaqi Khoja leader Burhan-ud-din and his brother, Khoja Jihan, from Dzungar imprisonment and appointed them to rule the Tarim Basin as Qing vassals. The Khoja brothers reneged on the agreement, declaring themselves independent leaders of the Tarim Basin. The Qing and the Turfan leader Emin Khoja crushed their revolt, and by 1759 China controlled Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin.{{sfnp, Adle, 2003, p=203, loc="By the autumn of 1759, the entire periphery of the Tarim basin had been pacified"
The Manchu people, Manchu Qing dynasty gained control of eastern Xinjiang as a result of a Dzungar–Qing Wars, long struggle with the Dzungars which began during the 17th century. In 1755, with the help of the Oirat noble Amursana, the Qing attacked Yining, Ghulja and captured the Dzungar khan. After Amursana's request to be declared Dzungar khan went unanswered, he led a revolt against the Qing. Qing armies destroyed the remnants of the Dzungar Khanate over the next two years, and many Han Chinese and Hui people, Hui moved into the pacified areas.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=98
The native Dzungar Oirat Mongols suffered greatly from the brutal campaigns and a simultaneous smallpox epidemic. Writer Wei Yuan described the resulting desolation in present-day northern Xinjiang as "an empty plain for several thousand ''li (unit), li'', with no Oirat yurt except those surrendered." It has been estimated that 80 percent of the 600,000 (or more) Dzungars died from a combination of disease and warfare, and recovery took generations.{{sfnp, Tyler, 2004 ,
55
} Han and Hui merchants were initially only allowed to trade in the Tarim Basin; their settlement in the Tarim Basin was banned until the 1830 Āfāqī Khoja Holy War, Muhammad Yusuf Khoja invasion, when the Qing rewarded merchants for fighting off Khoja by allowing them to settle in the basin.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
113
} The Uyghur Muslim Sayyid and Naqshbandi Sufi rebel of the Afaqi suborder, Jahangir Khoja was Lingchi, sliced to death (Lingchi) in 1828 by the Manchus for Āfāqī Khoja Holy War#Military expeditions with the support of Khoqand, leading a rebellion against the Qing. According to Robert Montgomery Martin, many Chinese with a variety of occupations were settled in Dzungaria in 1870; in Turkestan (the Tarim Basin), however, only a few Chinese merchants and garrison soldiers were interspersed with the Muslim population.{{sfnp, Martin, 1847 ,
21
} The 1765 Uqturpan County, Ush rebellion by the Uyghurs against the Manchu began after Uyghur women were raped by the servants and son of Manchu official Su-cheng.{{sfnp, Millward , 1998 ,
124
} It was said that "Ush Muslims had long wanted to sleep on [Sucheng and son's] hides and eat their flesh" because of the months-long abuse.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
108
} The Manchu emperor ordered the massacre of the Uyghur rebel town; Qing forces enslaved the Uyghur children and women, and killed the Uyghur men.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
109
} Sexual abuse of Uyghur women by Manchu soldiers and officials triggered deep Uyghur hostility against Manchu rule.{{sfnp, Millward , 1998 , p
206–207
}
By the 1860s, Xinjiang had been under Xinjiang under Qing rule, Qing rule for a century. The region was captured in 1759 from the Dzungar Khanate, whose population (the Oirats) became the targets of genocide. Xinjiang was primarily semi-arid or desert and unattractive to non-trading Chinese Han, Han settlers, and others (including the Uyghurs) settled there.
The Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), Dungan Revolt by the Muslim Hui and other Muslims, Muslim ethnic groups was fought in China's Shaanxi, Ningxia and Gansu Provinces of China, provinces and in Xinjiang from 1862 to 1877. The conflict led to a reported 20.77 million deaths due to migration and war, with many refugees dying of starvation.{{failed verification, date=January 2021 Thousands of Muslim refugees from Shaanxi fled to Gansu; some formed battalions in eastern Gansu, intending to reconquer their lands in Shaanxi. While the Hui rebels were preparing to attack Gansu and Shaanxi, Yakub Beg of Yettishar, Yaqub Beg (an Uzbek or Tajiks, Tajik commander of the Kokand Khanate) fled from the khanate in 1865 after losing Tashkent to the Russians. Beg settled in Kashgar, and soon controlled Xinjiang. Although he encouraged trade, built Caravanserai, caravansareis, canals and other irrigation systems, his regime was considered harsh. The Chinese took decisive action against Yettishar; an army under General Zuo Zongtang rapidly approached Kashgaria, reconquering it on 16 May 1877.
After Qing reconquest of Xinjiang, reconquering Xinjiang in the late 1870s from Yaqub Beg, the Qing dynasty established Xinjiang ("new frontier") as a province in 1884{{sfnp, Mesny , 1905 , p=5{{sndmaking it part of China, and dropping the old names of Zhunbu ({{lang, zh-hant, 準部, Dzungar Region) and Huijiang (Muslimland).{{sfnp, Tyler, 2004 ,
61
} After Xinjiang became a Chinese province, the Qing government encouraged the Uyghurs to migrate from southern Xinjiang to other areas of the province (such as the region between Qitai and the capital, largely inhabited by Han Chinese, and Ürümqi, Tacheng (Tabarghatai), Yili, Jinghe, Kur Kara Usu, Ruoqiang, Lop Nor and the lower Tarim River.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
151
}
In 1912, the Qing dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China. Yuan Dahua, the last Qing governor of Xinjiang, fled. One of his subordinates, Yang Zengxin, took control of the province and acceded in name to the Republic of China in March of that year. Balancing mixed ethnic constituencies, Yang controlled Xinjiang until his 1928 assassination after the Northern Expedition of the Kuomintang.
The Kumul Rebellion and others broke out throughout Xinjiang during the early 1930s against Jin Shuren, Yang's successor, involving Uyghurs, other Turkic groups and Hui (Muslim) Chinese. Jin enlisted White movement, White Russians to crush the revolts. In the Kashgar region on 12 November 1933, the short-lived First East Turkestan Republic was self-proclaimed after debate about whether it should be called "East Turkestan" or "Uyghuristan".R. Michael Feener, "Islam in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives", ABC-CLIO, 2004, {{ISBN, 1-57607-516-8{{cite news , title=Uighurs and China's Xinjiang Region , work=Council on Foreign Relations , url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/uighurs-and-chinas-xinjiang-region , url-status=live , access-date=13 October 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913002530/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/uighurs-and-chinas-xinjiang-region , archive-date=13 September 2018 The region claimed by the ETR encompassed the Kashgar Prefecture, Kashgar, Khotan Prefecture, Khotan and Aksu Prefectures in southwestern Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=24 The Chinese Muslim Kuomintang 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) defeated the army of the First East Turkestan Republic in the 1934 Battle of Kashgar (1934), Battle of Kashgar, ending the republic after Chinese Muslims executed its two emirs: Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. The Soviet Union Soviet invasion of Xinjiang, invaded the province; it was brought under the control of northeast Han warlord Sheng Shicai after the 1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937), Xinjiang War. Sheng ruled Xinjiang for the next decade with support from the Soviet Union, many of whose ethnic and security policies he instituted. The Soviet Union maintained a military base in the province and deployed several military and economic advisors. Sheng invited a group of Chinese Communists to Xinjiang (including Mao Zedong's brother, Mao Zemin),{{Cite book , last=Qian , first=Ying , title=Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China , date=2024 , publisher=Columbia University Press , isbn=9780231204477 , location=New York, NY{{Rp, page=111 but executed them all in 1943 in fear of a conspiracy. In 1944, President of the Republic of China, President and Premier of the Republic of China, Premier of China Chiang Kai-shek, informed by the Soviet Union of Shicai's intention to join it, transferred him to Chongqing as the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry the following year. During the Ili Rebellion, the Soviet Union backed Uyghur separatists to form the Second East Turkestan Republic (ETR) in the Ili region while most of Xinjiang remained under Kuomintang control.
220
}{{sfnp, Guo , Hickey , 2009 ,
164
} This created an economic imbalance, since the northern Junghar basin (Dzungaria) is more developed than the south.{{sfnp, Howell , 2009 ,
37
{Dead link, date=April 2024 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes Land Reform Movement (China), Land reform and Collective farming, collectivization occurred in Uyghur agricultural areas at the same general pace as in most of China.{{Cite book , last=Harrell , first=Stevan , title=An Ecological History of Modern China , publisher=University of Washington Press , year=2023 , isbn=978-0-295-75171-9 , location=Seattle{{Rp, page=134 Hunger in Xinjiang was not as great as elsewhere in China during the Great Leap Forward and a million Han Chinese fleeing famine resettled in Xinjiang.{{Rp, page=134 In 1980, China allowed the United States to establish electronic listening stations in Xinjiang so the United States could monitor Soviet rocket launches in central Asia in exchange for the United States authorizing the sale of Dual-use technology, dual-use civilian and military technology and nonlethal military equipment to China.{{Cite book , last=Zhao , first=Suisheng , title=The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy , date=2022 , publisher=Stanford University Press , isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2 , page=54, doi=10.1515/9781503634152 Since Chinese economic reform since the late 1970s has exacerbated uneven regional development, more Uyghurs have migrated to Xinjiang's cities and some Han have migrated to Xinjiang for economic advancement. Paramount leader, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping made a nine-day visit to Xinjiang in 1981 and described the region as "unsteady".{{cite book, url=https://archive.org/details/forbiddendoor00terz, title=The Forbidden Door, date=1985, publisher=Asia 2000 Ltd, author=Tiziano Terzani, via=Internet Archive, pag
224225
isbn=978-962-7160-01-4 The Deng era reforms encouraged China's ethnic minorities, including Uyghurs, to establish small private companies for commodity transit, retail, and restaurants.{{Cite book , last=Peyrouse , first=Sebastien , url=, title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform , date=2016 , publisher=Stanford University Press , others=Thomas Fingar , isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 , location=Stanford, California , page=227 , chapter=China and Central Asia , oclc=939553543 A brisk cross-border Shuttle traders, shuttle trade by Uyghurs further developed following the Soviet Union's perestroika.
Increased ethnic contact and labor competition coincided with Uyghur Terrorism in China#Xinjiang, terrorism since the 1990s, such as the 1997 Ürümqi bus bombings.{{sfnp, Hopper, Webber, 2009, pp=173–175 It has also made the Uyghur population become a minority in some areas of Xinjiang.
In 2000, Uyghurs were 45 percent of Xinjiang's population and 13 percent of Ürümqi's population. With nine percent of Xinjiang's population, Ürümqi accounts for 25 percent of the region's GDP; many rural Uyghurs have migrated to the city for work in its Light industry, light, Heavy industry, heavy and petrochemical industries.{{sfnp, Hopper, Webber, 2009, pp=178–179 Han in Xinjiang are older, better-educated and work in higher-paying professions than their Uyghur counterparts. Han are more likely to cite business reasons for moving to Ürümqi, while some Uyghurs cite legal trouble at home and family reasons for moving to the city.{{sfnp, Hopper, Webber, 2009, p=184 Han and Uyghurs are equally represented in Ürümqi's floating population, which works primarily in commerce. Auto-segregation in the city is widespread in residential concentration, employment relationships and endogamy.{{sfnp, Hopper, Webber, 2009, pp=187–188 In 2010, Uyghurs were a majority in the Tarim Basin and a plurality in Xinjiang as a whole.{{sfnp, Bovingdon, 2010, p=11
Xinjiang has 81 public library, public libraries and 23 museums, compared to none in 1949. It has List of newspapers in China#Xinjiang, 98 newspapers in 44 languages, compared with four in 1952. According to official statistics, the ratio of doctors, medical workers, clinics and hospital beds to the general population surpasses the national average; the immunization rate has reached 85 percent.{{cite web , url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20030526/6.htm , title=VI. Progress in Education, Science and Technology, Culture and Health Work , date=26 May 2003 , access-date=31 December 2010 , work=History and Development of Xinjiang , publisher=State Council of the People's Republic of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129173414/http://china.org.cn/e-white/20030526/6.htm , archive-date=29 January 2011 , url-status=live
The ongoing Xinjiang conflict{{cite web , last=Rudelson , first=Justin Ben-Adam , date=16 February 2000 , title=Uyghur "separatism": China's policies in Xinjiang fuel dissent , url=http://www.cacianalyst.org/newsite/newsite/?q=node/364 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229150459/http://www.cacianalyst.org/newsite/newsite/?q=node%2F364 , archive-date=29 February 2012 , access-date=29 January 2010 , website=CACI Analyst{{cite journal, last1=Gunaratna , first1=Rohan , author-link=Rohan Gunaratna , page=59 , last2=Pereire , first2=Kenneth George , year=2006 , title=An al-Qaeda associate group operating in China? , volume=4 , issue=2 , journal=China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly , url=http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/CEF/Quarterly/May_2006/GunaratnaPereire.pdf , quote=Since the Ghulja Incident, numerous attacks including attacks on buses, clashes between ETIM militants and Chinese security forces, assassination attempts, attempts to attack Chinese key installations and government buildings have taken place, though many cases go unreported. , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106144335/http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/CEF/Quarterly/May_2006/GunaratnaPereire.pdf , archive-date=6 January 2011 includes the 2007 Xinjiang raid, a thwarted 2008 suicide-bombing attempt on a China Southern Airlines flight, the 2008 Kashgar attack which killed 16 police officers four days before the 2008 Summer Olympics, Beijing Olympics, the September 2009 Xinjiang unrest, August 2009 syringe attacks, the 2011 Hotan attack,{{Cite news, url=http://articles.sfgate.com/2011-07-19/news/29789314_1_police-station-hotan-muslim-uighurs, title=China: Deadly attack on police station in Xinjiang, author=Richburg, Keith B., date=19 July 2011, access-date=29 July 2011, work=San Francisco Chronicle the 2014 Kunming attack, the April 2014 Ürümqi attack, and the May 2014 Ürümqi attack. Several of the attacks were orchestrated by the Turkistan Islamic Party (formerly the East Turkestan Islamic Movement), identified as a List of designated terrorist groups, terrorist group by several entities (including Russia, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States until October 2020, and the United Nations).
In 2014, Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leadership in Xinjiang commenced a People's War against the "Three Evil Forces" of separatism, terrorism, and extremism. They deployed two hundred thousand party cadres to Xinjiang and the launched the Civil Servant-Family Pair Up program. Leader of the Chinese Communist Party, Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping was dissatisfied with the initial results of the People's War and replaced Zhang Chunxian with Chen Quanguo as Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary, Party Committee Secretary in 2016. Following his appointment Chen oversaw the recruitment of tens of thousands of additional police officers and the division of society into three categories: trusted, average, untrustworthy. He instructed his subordinated to "Take this crackdown as the top project," and "to preëmpt the enemy, to strike at the outset." Following a meeting with Xi in Beijing Chen Quanguo held a rally in Ürümqi with ten thousand troops, helicopters, and armored vehicles. As they paraded he announced a "smashing, obliterating offensive," and declared that they would "bury the corpses of terrorists and terror gangs in the vast sea of the People's War."
Chinese authorities have operated internment camps to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims as part of the People's War since at least 2017.{{cite news , date=16 May 2018 , title=Former inmates of China's Muslim 'reeducation' camps tell of brainwashing, torture , newspaper=The Washington Post , url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/former-inmates-of-chinas-muslim-re-education-camps-tell-of-brainwashing-torture/2018/05/16/32b330e8-5850-11e8-8b92-45fdd7aaef3c_story.html , url-status=live , access-date=4 August 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921174130/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/former-inmates-of-chinas-muslim-re-education-camps-tell-of-brainwashing-torture/2018/05/16/32b330e8-5850-11e8-8b92-45fdd7aaef3c_story.html , archive-date=21 September 2018 The camps have been criticized by a number of sovereign governments and human-rights organizations for patterns of Persecution of Uyghurs in China, abuse and mistreatment, with various characterizations up to and including that of a genocide being perpetrated by the Chinese government. In 2020, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping said: "Practice has proven that the party's strategy for governing Xinjiang in the new era is completely correct."
In 2021, authorities sentenced Sattar Sawut – the former head of Xinjiang's education department and author of a Uyghur-language textbook used in Xinjiang since the mid 2000s – to Death sentence with reprieve, death with a two-year reprieve. The textbook had been created and approved by relevant government officials, but the Associated Press reported in 2021 that Chinese government said that the "2003 and 2009 editions of the textbooks contained 84 passages preaching ethnic separatism, violence, terrorism and religious extremism and that several people were inspired by the books to participate in a bloody anti-government riot in the regional capital Urumqi in 2009." Shirzat Bawudun, the former head of the Xinjiang department of justice, received the same sentence. Three other educators and two textbook editors were given lesser sentences.{{cite web , title=China condemns 2 ex-Xinjiang officials in separatism cases , url=https://apnews.com/article/world-news-race-and-ethnicity-beijing-china-national-security-e4d7a915a2e3ebb6c6f50778a2aec81a , access-date=10 April 2021 , website=Associated Press, date=7 April 2021 Chen was replaced as Community Party Secretary for Xinjiang by Ma Xingrui in December 2021.
Xi Jinping made a four-day visit to Xinjiang in July 2022 where Kompas TV had documented groups of Uyghurs welcoming his arrival. Xi called on local officials to do more in preserving ethnic minority culture and following an inspection of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, he praised the organisation's "great progress" in reform and development. During another visit to Xinjiang in August 2023, Xi said in a speech that the region should open up more for Tourism in Xinjiang, tourism to attract domestic and foreign visitors.
* – Altay Prefecture or Tacheng Prefecture are subordinate to Ili Prefecture. / The population or area figures of Ili do not include Altay Prefecture or Tacheng Prefecture which are subordinate to Ili Prefecture.
{, class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="text-font:90%; width:auto; text-align:center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"
! colspan="5" , Administrative divisions in Uyghur, Chinese and varieties of romanizations
, -
! English !! Uyghur !! SASM/GNC Uyghur Pinyin !! Chinese !! Pinyin
, -
, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region , , {{ug-textonly, شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى , , Xinjang Uyĝur Aptonom Rayoni , , {{lang, zh, 新疆维吾尔自治区 , , Xīnjiāng Wéiwú'ěr Zìzhìqū
, -
, Ürümqi city , , {{ug-textonly, ئۈرۈمچى شەھىرى , , Ürümqi Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 乌鲁木齐市 , , Wūlǔmùqí Shì
, -
, Karamay city , , {{ug-textonly, قاراماي شەھىرى , , K̂aramay Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 克拉玛依市 , , Kèlāmǎyī Shì
, -
, Turpan city , , {{ug-textonly, تۇرپان شەھىرى , , Turpan Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 吐鲁番市 , , Tǔlǔfān Shì
, -
, Hami City, Hami city , , {{ug-textonly, قۇمۇل شەھىرى , , K̂umul Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 哈密市 , , Hāmì Shì
, -
, Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, سانجى خۇيزۇ ئاپتونوم ئوبلاستى , , Sanji Huyzu Aptonom Oblasti , , {{lang, zh, 昌吉回族自治州 , , Chāngjí Huízú Zìzhìzhōu
, -
, Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, بۆرتالا موڭغۇل ئاپتونوم ئوبلاستى , , Börtala Mongĝul Aptonom Oblasti , , {{lang, zh, 博尔塔拉蒙古自治州 , , Bó'ěrtǎlā Měnggǔ Zìzhìzhōu
, -
, Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, بايىنغولىن موڭغۇل ئاپتونوم ئوبلاستى , , Bayinĝolin Mongĝul Aptonom Oblasti , , {{lang, zh, 巴音郭楞蒙古自治州 , , Bāyīnguōlèng Měnggǔ Zìzhìzhōu
, -
, Aksu Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, ئاقسۇ ۋىلايىتى , , Ak̂su Vilayiti , , {{lang, zh, 阿克苏地区 , , Ākèsū Dìqū
, -
, Kizilsu Kirghiz Autonomous Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, قىزىلسۇ قىرغىز ئاپتونوم ئوبلاستى , , K̂izilsu K̂irĝiz Aptonom Oblasti , , {{lang, zh, 克孜勒苏柯尔克孜自治州 , , Kèzīlèsū Kē'ěrkèzī Zìzhìzhōu
, -
, Kashgar Prefecture, Kashi Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, قەشقەر ۋىلايىتى , , K̂äxk̂är Vilayiti , , {{lang, zh, 喀什地区 , , Kāshí Dìqū
, -
, Hotan Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, خوتەن ۋىلايىتى , , Hotän Vilayiti , , {{lang, zh, 和田地区 , , Hétián Dìqū
, -
, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, ئىلى قازاق ئاپتونوم ئوبلاستى , , Ili K̂azak̂ Aptonom Oblasti , , {{lang, zh, 伊犁哈萨克自治州 , , Yīlí Hāsàkè Zìzhìzhōu
, -
, Tacheng Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, تارباغاتاي ۋىلايىتى , , Tarbaĝatay Vilayiti , , {{lang, zh, 塔城地区 , , Tǎchéng Dìqū
, -
, Altay Prefecture , , {{ug-textonly, ئالتاي ۋىلايىتى , , Altay Vilayiti , , {{lang, zh, 阿勒泰地区 , , Ālètài Dìqū
, -
, Shihezi city , , {{ug-textonly, شىخەنزە شەھىرى , , Xihänzä Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 石河子市 , , Shíhézǐ Shì
, -
, Aral, Xinjiang, Aral city , , {{ug-textonly, ئارال شەھىرى , , Aral Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 阿拉尔市 , , Ālā'ěr Shì
, -
, Tumxuk city , , {{ug-textonly, تۇمشۇق شەھىرى , , Tumxuk̂ Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 图木舒克市 , , Túmùshūkè Shì
, -
, Wujiaqu city , , {{ug-textonly, ۋۇجياچۈ شەھىرى , , Vujyaqü Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 五家渠市 , , Wǔjiāqú Shì
, -
, Beitun, Xinjiang, Beitun city , , {{ug-textonly, بەيتۈن شەھىرى , , Bäatün Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 北屯市 , , Běitún Shì
, -
, Tiemenguan City, Tiemenguan city , , {{ug-textonly, باشئەگىم شەھىرى , , Baxägym Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 铁门关市 , , Tiĕménguān Shì
, -
, Shuanghe city , , {{ug-textonly, قوشئۆگۈز شەھىرى , , K̂oxögüz Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 双河市 , , Shuānghé Shì
, -
, Kokdala city , , {{ug-textonly, كۆكدالا شەھىرى , , Kökdala Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 可克达拉市 , , Kěkèdálā Shì
, -
, Kunyu, Xinjiang, Kunyu city , , {{ug-textonly, قۇرۇمقاش شەھىرى , , Kurumkax XCĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 昆玉市 , , Kūnyù Shì
, -
, Huyanghe city , , {{ug-textonly, خۇياڭخې شەھىرى , , Huyanghê Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 胡杨河市 , , Húyánghé Shì
, -
, Xinxing, Xinjiang, Xinxing city , , {{ug-textonly, يېڭى يۇلتۇز شەھىرى , , Yëngi Yultuz Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 新星市 , , Xīnxīng Shì
, -
, Baiyang, Xinjiang, Baiyang city , , {{ug-textonly, بەيياڭ شەھىرى , , Bäyyang Xäĥiri , , {{lang, zh, 白杨市 , , BaíYáng Shì
Xinjiang is the largest Administrative divisions of China, political subdivision of China, accounting for more than one sixth of China's total territory and a quarter of its boundary length. Xinjiang is mostly covered with uninhabitable deserts and dry grasslands, with dotted oases conducive to habitation accounting for 9.7 percent of Xinjiang's total area by 2015 at the foot of Tian Shan, Kunlun Mountains and Altai Mountains, respectively.
Other major mountain ranges of Xinjiang include the Pamir Mountains and Karakoram in the southwest, the Kunlun Mountains in the south (along the border with Tibet) and the Altai Mountains in the northeast (shared with Mongolia). The region's highest point is the mountain K2, an eight-thousander located {{convert, 8611, m, ft above sea level in the Karakoram Mountains on the border with Pakistan.
Much of the Tarim Basin is dominated by the Taklamakan Desert. North of it is the Turpan Depression, which contains the lowest point in Xinjiang and in the entire PRC, at {{convert, 155, m, ft below sea level.
The Dzungarian Basin is slightly cooler, and receives somewhat more precipitation, than the Tarim Basin. Nonetheless, it, too, has a large Gurbantünggüt Desert (also known as Dzoosotoyn Elisen) in its center.
The Tian Shan mountain range marks the Xinjiang-Kyrgyzstan border at the Torugart Pass (3752 m). The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass.
别伊克山口
:zh:排依克山口, 排依克山口 , :en:Beyik Pass, Beyik Pass , {{coord, 37.3, 75.0 , 4742m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:纳兹塔什山口, 纳兹塔什山口
奈扎塔什山隘 , :en:Nezatash Pass, Nezatash Pass , {{coord, 37.58944, 74.93611 , 4476m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Agachak, Agachak Pass , :sv: Aghbai Agachak, Agachak Pass , {{coord, 37.82115, 74.94492 , 5127m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:卡拉苏口岸, 卡拉苏口岸
:zh:阔勒买口岸, 阔勒买口岸 , :en:Kulma Pass, Kulma Pass , {{coord, 38.1498, 74.8038 , 4362m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Saritosh, Saritosh Pass , :sv: Aghbai Saritosh, Saritosh Pass , {{coord, 38.27694, 74.80111 , 4538m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Qaratokhterak, Qaratokhterak Pass , :sv: Aghbai Qaratokhterak, Qaratokhterak Pass , {{coord, 38.42833, 74.86722 , 4877m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Aromiti, Aromiti Pass , :sv: Aghbai Aromiti, Aromiti Pass , {{coord, 38.62833, 74.48472 , 4703m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Budabel, Budabel Pass , :sv: Aghbai Budabel, Budabel Pass , {{coord, 38.57556, 74.07222 , 4251m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kiyaz-Ashu, Kiyaz-Ashu , :sv: Pereval Kiyaz-Ashu, Kiyaz-Ashu , {{coord, 38.53333, 74.0 , 4479m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:乌孜别里山口, 乌孜别里山口 , :de: Uzbel-Pass, Uzbel-Pass , {{coord, 38.653806, 73.8023917 , 5540m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Qarazoq, Qarazoq Pass , :sv: Aghbai Qarazoq, Qarazoq Pass , {{coord, 38.85, 73.71194 , 5217m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Uch-Bel, Uch-Bel Pass , :sv: Aghbai Uch-Bel, Uch-Bel Pass , {{coord, 37.82115, 74.94492 , 5127m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Togochar, Togochar Pass , :sv: Pereval Togochar, Togochar Pass , {{coord, 39.56447, 73.91435 , 4361m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Karachaychaty Pass , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Karachaychaty Pass , {{coord, 39.59439, 73.92407 , 4284m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , 斯姆哈纳
:zh:伊尔克什坦口岸, 伊尔克什坦口岸 , :en:Erkeshtam, Erkeshtam , {{coord, 39.7172, 73.9735 , 3005m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Kashetek Pass , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Kashetek Pass , {{coord, 39.72847, 73.91437 , 3120m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Bezymyannyy, Bezymyannyy Pass , :sv: Pereval Bezymyannyy, Bezymyannyy Pass , {{coord, 39.74686, 73.89173 , 3306m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tupik, Tupik Pass , :sv: Pereval Tupik, Tupik Pass , {{coord, 39.74583, 73.88416 , 3299m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Vorota (bergspass i Kina), Vorota Pass , :sv: Pereval Vorota (bergspass i Kina), Vorota Pass , {{coord, 39.75665, 73.86167 , 3604m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Il'tyk, Il'tyk Pass , :sv: Pereval Il'tyk, Il'tyk Pass , {{coord, 39.7647, 73.8388 , 3836m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kara-Bel' (bergspass i Kina), Kara-Bel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Kara-Bel' (bergspass i Kina), Kara-Bel' Pass , {{coord, 39.8652, 73.89535 , 3863m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Ityk, Ityk Pass , :sv: Pereval Ityk, Ityk Pass , {{coord, 39.9114, 73.91068 , 4133m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Dungurama, Dungurama Pass , :sv: Pereval Dungurama, Dungurama Pass , {{coord, 40.01417, 73.96673 , 4067m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karachalsu, Karachalsu Pass , :sv: Pereval Karachalsu, Karachalsu Pass , {{coord, 40.04483, 73.97866 , 4201m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Muzbel' (bergspass i Kina), Muzbel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Muzbel' (bergspass i Kina), Muzbel' Pass , {{coord, 40.08405, 74.01892 , 4507m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Achiktash, Achiktash Pass , :sv: Pereval Achiktash, Achiktash Pass , {{coord, 40.0807, 74.0658 , 4191m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kyz-Dar, Kyz-Dar Pass , :sv: Pereval Kyz-Dar, Kyz-Dar Pass , {{coord, 40.10652, 74.11892 , 4246m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kurumdu, Kurumdu Pass , :sv: Pereval Kurumdu, Kurumdu Pass , {{coord, 40.11038, 74.1286 , 4369m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tart-Kul', Tart-Kul' Pass , :sv: Pereval Tart-Kul', Tart-Kul' Pass , {{coord, 40.1134 , 74.2698 , 3786m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Shuralu-Davan, Shuralu-Davan Pass , :sv: Pereval Shuralu-Davan, Shuralu-Davan Pass , {{coord, 40.26928, 74.58181 , 3875m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tata, Tata Pass , :sv: Pereval Tata, Tata Pass , {{coord, 40.1359, 74.4161 , 4036m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Sulyuktur, Sulyuktur Pass , :sv: Pereval Sulyuktur, Sulyuktur Pass , {{coord, 40.08974, 74.09467 , 4086m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Talgyy, Talgyy Pass , :sv: Pereval Talgyy, Talgyy Pass , {{coord, 40.21973, 74.5368 , 3672m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kalmak-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Kalmak-Ashu Pass , :sv: Pereval Kalmak-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Kalmak-Ashu Pass , {{coord, 40.28128, 74.61626 , 3581m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tuz-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Tuz-Ashu Pass , :sv: Pereval Tuz-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Tuz-Ashu Pass , {{coord, 40.27238, 74.6524 , 3625m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Dzhetimashu, Dzhetimashu Pass , :sv: Pereval Dzhetimashu, Dzhetimashu Pass , {{coord, 40.42097, 74.81503 , 3838m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , 苏约克山口 , :sv: Pereval Borgun, Borgun Pass , {{coord, 40.46778, 74.81406 , 3945m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:吐尔尕特山口, 吐尔尕特山口 , :en:Torugart Pass, Torugart Pass , {{coord, 40.5517, 75.3939 , 3752m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Uselek, Uselek Pass , :sv: Pereval Uselek, Uselek Pass , {{coord, 40.63374, 75.5207 , 3638m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Chokolay, Chokolay Pass , :sv: Pereval Chokolay, Chokolay Pass , {{coord, 40.59985, 75.62223 , 3841m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Saryiymek, Saryiymek Pass , :sv: Pereval Saryiymek, Saryiymek Pass , {{coord, 40.47055, 75.72222 , 3820m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Ortosu, Ortosu Pass , :sv: Pereval Ortosu, Ortosu Pass , {{coord, 40.3261, 75.82059 , 3903m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Terekty, Terekty Pass , :sv: Pereval Terekty, Terekty Pass , {{coord, 40.30978, 75.85505 , 3908m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kurpe-Bel', Kurpe-Bel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Kurpe-Bel', Kurpe-Bel' Pass , {{coord, 40.37611, 75.96578 , 3667m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Buzaygyr, Buzaygyr Pass , :sv: Pereval Buzaygyr, Buzaygyr Pass , {{coord, 40.36648, 76.00256 , 3783m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Khodzhent, Khodzhent Pass , :sv: Pereval Khodzhent, Khodzhent Pass , {{coord, 40.41093, 76.282 , 3955m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Yerteke, Yerteke Pass , :sv: Pereval Yerteke, Yerteke Pass , {{coord, 40.34612, 76.33113 , 3780m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tuyukkhodzhent, Tuyukkhodzhent Pass , :sv: Pereval Tuyukkhodzhent, Tuyukkhodzhent Pass , {{coord, 40.38185, 76.36949 , 3780m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kurumduk, Kurumduk Pass , :sv: Pereval Kurumduk, Kurumduk Pass , {{coord, 40.41196, 76.45904 , 3822m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Pervyy, Karabel' Pervyy Pass , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Pervyy, Karabel' Pervyy Pass , {{coord, 40.42914, 76.50312 , 4091m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Vtoroy, Karabel' Vtoroy Pass , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Vtoroy, Karabel' Vtoroy Pass , {{coord, 40.47805, 76.53704 , 4083m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Aksaybel', Aksaybel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Aksaybel', Aksaybel' Pass , {{coord, 40.56114, 76.56965 , 4186m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tuyukbel', Tuyukbel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Tuyukbel', Tuyukbel' Pass , {{coord, 40.64156, 76.6497 , 4091m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:别迭里山口, 别迭里山口 , :en:Bedel Pass, Bedel Pass , {{coord, 41.4114, 78.4131 , 4284m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Chonteren, Chonteren Pass , :sv: Pereval Chonteren, Chonteren Pass , {{coord, 42.04934, 80.21078 , 5331m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Bysokiy, Bysokiy Pass , :sv: Pereval Bysokiy, Bysokiy Pass , {{coord, 42.07022, 80.21003 , 5435m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:阿拉山口市, 阿拉山口市 , :en:Alashankou, Alashankou , {{coord, 45.2, 82.6 , 291m , {{flagdeco, KAZ-{{flagdeco, PRC Border
Having hot summer and low precipitation, most of Xinjiang is endorheic. Its rivers either disappear in the desert, or terminate in salt lakes (within Xinjiang itself, or in neighboring Kazakhstan), instead of running towards an ocean. The northernmost part of the region, with the Irtysh River rising in the Altai Mountains, that flows (via Kazakhstan and Russia) toward the Arctic Ocean, is the only exception. But even so, a significant part of the Irtysh's waters were artificially diverted via the Irtysh–Karamay–Ürümqi Canal to the drier regions of southern Dzungarian Basin.
Elsewhere, most of Xinjiang's rivers are comparatively short streams fed by the snows of the several ranges of the Tian Shan. Once they enter the populated areas in the mountains' foothills, their waters are extensively used for irrigation, so that the river often disappears in the desert instead of reaching the lake to whose basin it nominally belongs. This is the case even with the main river of the Tarim Basin, the Tarim River, Tarim, which has been dammed at a number of locations along its course, and whose waters have been completely diverted before they can reach the Lop Lake. In the Dzungarian basin, a similar situation occurs with most rivers that historically flowed into Lake Manas. Some of the salt lakes, having lost much of their fresh water inflow, are now extensively use for the production of mineral salts (used e.g., in the manufacturing of potassium fertilizers); this includes the Lop Lake and the Manas Lake.
* Ürümqi
* Turpan
* Kashgar
* Karamay
* Ghulja
* Shihezi
* Hotan
* Artush
* Aksu, Xinjiang, Aksu
* Korla
! style="width:25%" , 
! style="width:25%" ,
! style="width:25%" ,
, -
!Title
, style="text-align:center;" , Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary, CCP Committee Secretary
, style="text-align:center;" , People's Congress Chairwoman
, style="text-align:center;" , Chairman
, style="text-align:center;" , Xinjiang CPPCC Chairman
, -
!Name
, Ma Xingrui
, Zumret Obul
, Erkin Tuniyaz
, Nurlan Abilmazhinuly
, -
!Born
, {{Birth year and age, 1959, 10
, {{Birth year and age, 1959, 08
, {{Birth year and age, 1961, 11
, {{Birth year and age, 1962, 12
, -
!Assumed office
, December 2021
, January 2023
, September 2021
, January 2023
Like all Politics of China, governing institutions in mainland China, Xinjiang has a parallel party-government system. The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional Committee of the CCP acts as the top policy-formulation body, and exercises control over the Regional People's Government. The CCP Committee Secretary, generally a member of the Han ethnic group, outranks the Government Chairman, always an Uyghur. The Government Chairman typically serves as a Deputy Committee Secretary.{{Cite web , title=Decoding Chinese Politics , url=https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/decoding-chinese-politics , access-date=2 October 2023 , website=Asia Society
; Chairmen of the Xinjiang Government
# 1949–1955: Burhan Shahidi ({{lang, zh-hans, 包尔汉·沙希迪; {{lang, ug, بۇرھان شەھىدى)
# 1955–1967: Saifuddin Azizi ({{lang, zh-hans, 赛福鼎·艾则孜; {{lang, ug, سەيپىدىن ئەزىزى)
# 1968–1972: Long Shujin ({{lang, zh-hans, 龙书金)
# 1972–1978: Saifuddin Azizi ({{lang, zh-hans, 赛福鼎·艾则孜; {{lang, ug, سەيپىدىن ئەزىزى)
# 1978–1979: Wang Feng (politician), Wang Feng ({{lang, zh-hans, 汪锋)
# 1979–1985: Ismail Amat ({{lang, zh-hans, 司马义·艾买提; {{lang, ug, ئىسمائىل ئەھمەد)
# 1985–1993: Tömür Dawamat ({{lang, zh-hans, 铁木尔·达瓦买提; {{lang, ug, تۆمۈر داۋامەت)
# 1993–2003: Ablet Abdureshit, Abdul'ahat Abdulrixit ({{lang, zh-hans, 阿不来提·阿不都热西提; {{lang, ug, ئابلەت ئابدۇرىشىت)
# 2003–2007: Ismail Tiliwaldi ({{lang, zh-hans, 司马义·铁力瓦尔地; {{lang, ug, ئىسمائىل تىلىۋالدى)
# 2007–2015: Nur Bekri ({{lang, zh-hans, 努尔·白克力; {{lang, ug, نۇر بەكرى)
# 2015–2021: Shohrat Zakir ({{lang, zh-hans, 雪克来提·扎克尔; {{lang, ug, شۆھرەت زاكىر)
# Since 2021: Erkin Tuniyaz ({{lang, zh-hans, 艾尔肯·吐尼亚孜; {{lang, ug, ئەركىن تۇنىياز)
Some factions in Xinjiang, most prominently Uyghur nationalism, Uyghur nationalists, advocate establishing an independent country named East Turkestan (also sometimes called "Uyghuristan"), which has led to tension, Xinjiang conflict, conflict, and ethnic strife in the region. Autonomous regions in China do not have a legal right to secede, and each one is considered to be an "inseparable part of the People's Republic of China" by the government. The separatist movement claims that the region is not part of China, but was invaded by the CCP in 1949 and has been under occupation since then. The Chinese government asserts that the region has been part of China since ancient times, and has engaged in "strike hard" campaigns targeted at separatists.
Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China
Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215105736/http://www.apcss.org/college/publications/uyghur-muslim-ethnic-separatism-in-xinjiang-china/, date=15 December 2013'' The movement has been supported by both militant Islamic extremist groups such as the Turkistan Islamic Party, as well as certain advocacy groups with no connection to extremist groups. According to the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, the two main sources for separatism in the Xinjiang Province are religion and ethnicity. Religiously, the most Uyghur peoples of Xinjiang follow Islam; in the rest of China, many are Buddhist, Taoism, Taoist and Confucianism, Confucian, although many follow Islam as well, such as the Hui people, Hui ethnic subgroup of the Han ethnicity, comprising some 10 million people. Thus, the major difference and source of friction with eastern China is ethnicity and religious doctrinal differences that differentiate them politically from other Muslim minorities elsewhere in the country.
The GDP of Xinjiang was about {{CNY, 1.774 trillion, link=yes ({{US$, 263 billion) {{As of, 2022, lc=y.{{cite web, url=https://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn=E0103, title=National Data, publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China, date=1 March 2022, access-date=23 March 2022 Economic growth has been fueled by to discovery of the abundant reserves of coal, oil, gas as well as the China Western Development policy introduced by the State Council to boost economic development in Western China.{{Cite web , title=Xinjiang Province: Economic News and Statistics for Xinjiang's Economy , url=http://thechinaperspective.com/topics/province/xinjiang-province/ , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008045314/http://thechinaperspective.com/topics/province/xinjiang-province/ , archive-date=8 October 2011 , access-date=22 October 2011 Its List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita, per capita GDP for 2022 was {{CNY, 68,552 ({{US$, 10,191). Southern Xinjiang, with 95 percent non-Han population, has an average per capita income half that of Xinjiang as a whole. XPCC plays an outsized role in Xinjiang's economy, with the organization producing Renminbi, {{CNY, 350 billion, link= ({{US$, 52 billion), or around 19.7% of Xinjiang's economy, while the per capita GDP was {{CNY, 98,748 ({{US$, 14,680).{{Cite web , date=28 March 2023 , title=新疆生产建设兵团2022年国民经济和社会发展统计公报 , url=https://www.btdsys.gov.cn/zyxw/tzgg/5647.html#:~:text=%E5%85%A8%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E5%9D%87%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%A7%E6%80%BB,%E5%B9%B4%E6%9C%AB%E5%A2%9E%E5%8A%A012.00%E4%B8%87%E4%BA%BA%E3%80%82 , access-date=2023-06-22 , website=www.btdsys.gov.cn
Economic development of Xinjiang is a priority for China.{{Cite book , last=Zhao , first=Huasheng , url=, title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform , date=2016 , publisher=Stanford University Press , others=Thomas Fingar , isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 , location=Stanford, California , page=180 , chapter=Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking , oclc=939553543 In 2000, the government articulated its strategy for developing the Western China, western regions of the country, and that plan made Xinjiang a major focus. Accelerating development in Xinjiang is intended by China to achieve a number of objectives, including narrowing the economic gap between Xinjiang and the more developed eastern provinces, as well as alleviating political discontent and security problems by alleviating poverty and raising the standard of living in order to increase stability. From 2014 to 2020, fiscal transfers from China's central government to Xinjiang grew by an average of 10.4% per year.{{Cite book , last1=Tsang , first1=Steve , author-link=Steve Chang , title=The Political Thought of Xi Jinping , last2=Cheung , first2=Olivia , publisher=Oxford University Press , year=2024 , isbn=9780197689363{{Rp, page=110
In July 2010, state media outlet ''China Daily'' reported that:
* Ürümqi Economic & Technological Development Zone is northwest of Ürümqi. It was approved in 1994 by the State Council as a national level economic and technological development zones. It is {{cvt, 1.5, km from the Ürümqi International Airport, {{cvt, 2, km from the North Railway Station and {{cvt, 10, km from the city center. Wu Chang Expressway and 312 National Road passes through the zone. The development has unique resources and geographical advantages. Xinjiang's vast land, rich in resources, borders eight countries. As the leading economic zone, it brings together the resources of Xinjiang's industrial development, capital, technology, information, personnel and other factors of production.
* Ürümqi Export Processing Zone is in Urumuqi Economic and Technology Development Zone. It was established in 2007 as a state-level export processing zone.
* Ürümqi New & Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone was established in 1992 and it is the only high-tech development zone in Xinjiang, China. There are more than 3470 enterprises in the zone, of which 23 are Fortune 500 companies. It has a planned area of {{convert, 9.8, km2, abbr=on and it is divided into four zones. There are plans to expand the zone.
* Yining Border Economic Cooperation Area
{{Historical populations
, title = Historical population
, 1912 , 2,098,000
, 1928 , 2,552,000
, 1936–37 , 4,360,000
, 1947 , 4,047,000
, 1954{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm , script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于第一次全国人口调查登记结果的公报 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174810/http://www.stats.gov.cn/TJGB/RKPCGB/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm , archive-date=5 August 2009 , 4,873,608
, 1964{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16768.htm , script-title=zh:第二次全国人口普查结果的几项主要统计数字 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914173158/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16768.htm , archive-date=14 September 2012 , 7,270,067
, 1982{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16769.htm , script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九八二年人口普查主要数字的公报 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510075429/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16769.htm , archive-date=10 May 2012 , 13,081,681
, 1990{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16772.htm , script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九九〇年人口普查主要数据的公报 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619002216/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16772.htm , archive-date=19 June 2012 , 15,155,778
, 2000{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020331_15435.htm , script-title=zh:现将2000年第五次全国人口普查快速汇总的人口地区分布数据公布如下 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829052024/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020331_15435.htm , archive-date=29 August 2012 , 18,459,511
, 2010{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110429_402722516.htm , title=Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727021210/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110429_402722516.htm , archive-date=27 July 2013 , 21,813,334
, 2020 , 25,852,345
The earliest Tarim mummies, dated to 1800 BC, are of a Caucasian race, Caucasoid physical type. East Asian migrants arrived in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin about 3000 years ago and the Uyghur peoples appeared after the collapse of the Orkon Uyghur Kingdom, based in modern-day Mongolia, around 842 AD.
The Islamization of Xinjiang started around 1000 AD. Xinjiang Muslim Turkic peoples contain Uyghurs, Kazaks, Kyrgyz, Tatars, Uzbeks; Muslim Iranian peoples comprise Tajiks, Tajiks of Xinjiang, Sarikolis/Wakhi people, Wakhis (often conflated as Tajiks); Muslim Sino-Tibetan languages, Sino-Tibetan peoples are such as the Hui. Other list of ethnic groups in China, ethnic groups in the region are Hans, Mongols (Oirats, Daur people, Daurs, Dongxiangs), Russians, Sibe people, Xibes, Manchus. Around 70,000 Russians in China, Russian immigrants were living in Xinjiang in 1945.
The Han Chinese of Xinjiang arrived at different times from different directions and social backgrounds. There are now descendants of criminals and officials who had been exiled from China during the second half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries; descendants of families of military and civil officers from Hunan, Yunnan, Gansu and Manchuria; descendants of merchants from Shanxi, Tianjin, Hubei and Hunan; and descendants of peasants who started immigrating into the region in 1776.{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, pp=51–52
Some Uyghur scholars claim descent from both the Turkic Uyghurs and the pre-Turkic Tocharians (or Tokharians, whose language was Indo-European); also, Uyghurs often have relatively-fair skin, hair and eyes and other Caucasoid physical traits.
In 2002, there were 9,632,600 males (growth rate of 1.0 percent) and 9,419,300 females (growth rate of 2.2 percent). The population overall growth rate was 1.09 percent, with 1.63 percent of birth rate and 0.54 percent mortality rate.
The Qing began a migration to Xinjiang, process of settling Han, Hui, and Uyghur settlers into Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria) in the 18th century. At the start of the 19th century, 40 years after the Qing reconquest, there were around 155,000 Han and Hui Chinese in northern Xinjiang and somewhat more than twice that number of Uyghurs in Southern Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=306 A census of Xinjiang under Qing rule in the early 19th century tabulated ethnic shares of the population as 30 percent Han and 60 percent Turkic and it dramatically shifted to 6 percent Han and 75 percent Uyghur in the 1953 census. However, a situation similar to the Qing era's demographics with a large number of Han had been restored by 2000, with 40.57 percent Han and 45.21 percent Uyghur.{{cite journal , first=Stanley , last=Toops , url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp001.pdf , title=Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949 , date=May 2004 , page=1 , issue=1 , periodical=East-West Center Washington Working Papers , publisher=East–West Center , access-date=14 November 2010 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716193518/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp001.pdf , archive-date=16 July 2007 Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Starr, 2004,
243
} Before 1831, only a few hundred Chinese merchants lived in Southern Xinjiang oases (Tarim Basin), and only a few Uyghurs lived in Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria).{{sfnp, Millward, 2007, p=104 After 1831, the Qing encouraged Han Chinese migration into the Tarim Basin, in southern Xinjiang, but with very little success, and permanent troops were stationed on the land there as well.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=105 Political killings and expulsions of non-Uyghur populations during the uprisings in the 1860s{{sfnp, Millward, 2007, p=105 and the 1930s saw them experience a sharp decline as a percentage of the total population{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, p=52 though they rose once again in the periods of stability from 1880, which saw Xinjiang increase its population from 1.2 million,{{sfnp, Mesny, 1896, p=272{{sfnp, Mesny , 1899, p=485 to 1949. From a low of 7 percent in 1953, the Han began to return to Xinjiang between then and 1964, where they comprised 33 percent of the population (54 percent Uyghur), like in Qing times. A decade later, at the beginning of the Chinese economic reform in 1978, the demographic balance was 46 percent Uyghur and 40 percent Han, which did not change drastically until the 2000 Census, when the Uyghur population had reduced to 42 percent.{{cite web , title=China: Human Rights Concerns in Xinjiang , url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm , date=October 2001 , work=Human Rights Watch Backgrounder , publisher=Human Rights Watch , access-date=4 December 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112153554/http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm , archive-date=12 November 2008 , url-status=live In 2010, the population of Xinjiang was 45.84 percent Uyghur and 40.48 percent Han. The 2020 Census showed the share of the Uyghur population decline slightly to 44.96 percent, and the Han population rise to 42.24 percent Military personnel are not counted and ethnic minorities in China, national minorities are undercounted in the Chinese census, as in some other censuses.{{sfnp, Starr, 2004,
242
} 3.6 million people reside in XPCC administered areas, around 14 percent of Xinjiang's population. While some of the shift has been attributed to an increased Han presence, Uyghurs have also emigrated to other parts of China, where their numbers have increased steadily. Uyghur independence activists express concern over the Han population changing the Uyghur character of the region though the Han and Hui Chinese mostly live in Northern Xinjiang Dzungaria and are separated from areas of historic Uyghur dominance south of the Tian Shan mountains (Southwestern Xinjiang), where Uyghurs account for about 90 percent of the population.{{cite book , trans-title=Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China, language=zh-Hans-CN, script-title=zh:2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料 , location=Beijing, publisher=Nationalities Publishing House, year=2003, isbn=978-7-105-05425-1, oclc=54494505 In general, Uyghurs are the majority in Southwestern Xinjiang, including the prefectures of Kashgar, Khotan, Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture, Kizilsu and Aksu (about 80 percent of Xinjiang's Uyghurs live in those four prefectures) as well as Turpan, Turpan Prefecture, in Eastern Xinjiang. The Han are the majority in Eastern and Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria), including the cities of Ürümqi, Karamay, Shihezi and the prefectures of Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Changjyi, Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala, Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bayin'gholin, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili (especially the cities of Kuytun, Kuitun) and Hami, Kumul. Kazakhs are mostly concentrated in Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili Prefecture in Northern Xinjiang. Kazakhs are the majority in the northernmost part of Xinjiang. {, class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="text-align:right;" ! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" , Ethnic groups in Xinjiang , - ! colspan="3" , {{smaller, 2020 Chinese census , - ! List of ethnic groups in China, Nationality !! Population !! Percentage , - , style="text-align:left;" , Uyghurs, Uyghur, , 11,624,257 , , 44.96 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Han Chinese, Han, , 10,920,098 , , 42.24 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Kazakhs, Kazakh, , 1,539,636 , , 5.96 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Hui people, Hui, , 1,102,928 , , 4.27 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Kyrgyz people, Kirghiz, , 199,264 , , 0.77 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Oirats, Mongols, , 169,143 , , 0.65 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Dongxiang people, Dongxiang, , 72,036 , , 0.28 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Chinese Tajiks, Tajiks, , 50,238 , , 0.19 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Sibe people, Xibe, , 34,105 , , 0.13 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Manchu people, Manchu, , 20,915 , , 0.080 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Tujia people, Tujia, , 15,787 , , 0.086 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Tibetan people, Tibetan, , 18,276 , , 0.071 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Uzbeks, Uzbek, , 12,301 , , 0.048 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Miao people, Miao, , 12,220 , , 0.047 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Russians in China, Russian, , 8,024 , , 0.031 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Yi people, Yi, , 7,752 , , 0.030 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Zhuang people, Zhuang, , 5,727 , , 0.022 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Daur people, Daur, , 5,447 , , 0.021 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Chinese Tatars, Tatar, , 5,183 , , 0.024 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Monguor people, Tu , , 3,827 , , 0.015 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Salar people, Salar , , 3,266 , , 0.013 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Other , , 11,764 , , 0.046 percent {, class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" ! style="text-align: center;" colspan="5", Major ethnic groups in Xinjiang by region (2018 data){{efn-ur, Does not include members of the People's Liberation Army in active service.
P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level city; DACLC = Directly administered county-level city.{{Cite web, date=2020-06-10, title=, script-title=zh:3–7 各地、州、市、县(市)分民族人口数, trans-title=3–7 Prefectural, Municipal, and County-level Population by Ethnicity, url=http://tjj.xinjiang.gov.cn/tjj/rkjyu/202006/3b1eef1049114b0c9cf9e81bf18433ef.shtml, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101062133/http://tjj.xinjiang.gov.cn/tjj/rkjyu/202006/3b1eef1049114b0c9cf9e81bf18433ef.shtml, archive-date=2020-11-01, access-date=2021-10-11, publisher=Statistic Bureau of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, language=zh , - ! !! Uyghurs {{nobold, (%) !! Han Chinese, Han {{nobold, (%) !! Kazakhs {{nobold, (%) !! others {{nobold, (%) , - , style="text-align:left;", Xinjiang , , 51.14, , 34.41, , 6.90, , 7.55 , - , style="text-align:left;", Ürümqi PLC , , 12.85 , , 71.21 , 2.77 , , 13.16 , - , style="text-align:left;", Karamay PLC , , 15.59 , , 74.67, , 4.05 , , 5.69 , - , style="text-align:left;", Turpan, Turpan Prefecture , , 76.96, , 16.84 , , 0.05 , , 6.15 , - , style="text-align:left;", Hami Prefecture, Kumul Prefecture , , 20.01 , , 65.49, , 10.04 , , 4.46 , - , style="text-align:left;", Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Changji AP , , 4.89 , , 72.28, , 10.34 , , 12.49 , - , style="text-align:left;", Börtala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala AP , , 14.76 , , 63.27, , 10.41 , , 11.56 , - , style="text-align:left;", Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bayin'gholin AP , , 36.38 , , 53.31, , 0.11 , , 10.20 , - , style="text-align:left;", Aksu Prefecture , , 80.08, , 18.56 , , 0.01 , , 1.36 , - , style="text-align:left;", Kizilsu Kirgiz Autonomous Prefecture, Kizilsu AP , , 66.24, , 6.29 , , 0.03 , , 27.44 , - , style="text-align:left;", Kashgar, Kashgar Prefecture , , 92.56, , 6.01 , , < 0.005 , , 1.42 , - , style="text-align:left;", Khotan, Khotan Prefecture , , 96.96, , 2.85 , , < 0.005 , , 0.19 , - , style="text-align:left;", Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili AP{{efn, group=n, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture is composed of Kuytun, Kuitun DACLC, Tacheng Prefecture, Altay Prefecture, Aletai Prefecture, and the former Ili Prefecture. Ili Prefecture has been disbanded and its former area is now directly administered by Ili AP. , , 17.95 , , 40.09 , , 27.16 , , 14.80 , - , style="text-align:left;" , – ''former Ili Prefecture'', , 26.30 , , 35.21 , , 21.57 , , 16.91 , - , style="text-align:left;" , – ''Tacheng Prefecture'', , 4.25 , , 54.66, , 26.66 , , 14.43 , - , style="text-align:left;" , – ''Altay Prefecture'', , 1.42 , , 39.85 , , 52.76, , 5.97 , - , Shihezi DACLC , , 1.09 , , 94.13, , 0.63 , , 4.15 , - , , Aral, Xinjiang, Aral DACLC , , 3.66 , , 91.96 , , < 0.005 , , 4.38 , - , , Tumushuke DACLC , , 67.49 , , 31.73 , , < 0.005 , , 0.78 , - , Wujiaqu DACLC , , 0.05 , , 96.29 , , 0.10 , , 3.55 , - , , Tiemenguan City, Tiemenguan DACLC , , 0.07 , , 95.96 , , 0.00 , , 3.97 {{Notelist-ur
(per 1000) ! Crude death rate
(per 1000) ! Natural change
(per 1000) , - , 2011 , 22,090,000 , , , , , , 14.99, , 4.42, , 10.57 , - , 2012 , 22,330,000 , , , , , , 15.32, , 4.48, , 10.84 , - , 2013 , 22,640,000 , , , , , , 15.84, , 4.92, , 10.92 , - , 2014 , 22,980,000 , , , , , , 16.44, , 4.97, , 11.47 , - , 2015 , 23,600,000 , , , , , , 15.59, , 4.51, , 11.08 , - , 2016 , 23,980,000 , , , , , , 15.34, , 4.26, , 11.08 , - , 2017 , 24,450,000 , , , , , , 15.88, , 4.48, , 11.40 , - , 2018 , 24,870,000 , , , , , , 10.69, , 4.56, , 6.13 , - , 2019 , 25,230,000 , , , , , , 8.14, , 4.45, , 3.69 , - , 2020 , 25,852,000 , , , , , , 7.01, , , , , - , 2021 , 25,890,000 , , , , , , 6.16, , 5.60, , 0.56
2010 Islam by province, page 29
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427140204/https://doors.doshisha.ac.jp/duar/repository/ir/18185/r002000080004.pdf , date=27 April 2017 . Data from Yang Zongde, ''Study on Current Muslim Population in China'', Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010. In 1950, there were 29,000 mosques and 54,000 imams in Xinjiang, which fell to 14,000 mosques and 29,000 imams by 1966. Following the Cultural Revolution, there were only about 1,400 remaining mosques. By the mid-1980's, the number of mosques had returned to 1950 levels.{{cite book, url=https://archive.org/details/humanrightsdevel0000seym, title=China Rights Annals 1 Human Rights Developments in the People's Republic of China from October 1983 through September 1984, author=James D. Seymour, publisher=M. E. Sharpe, date=1985, pag
90
isbn=978-0-87332-320-8, via=Internet Archive According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang – 65 percent of the region's total. Christianity in Xinjiang is the religion of 1 percent of the population according to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009.{{cite thesis , degree=PhD , title=Explaining Christianity in China: Why a Foreign Religion has Taken Root in Unfertile Ground , url=https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1 , first=Xiuhua , last=Wang , year=2015 , page=15 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925123928/https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1 , archive-date=25 September 2015 , publisher=Baylor University A majority of the Uyghur Muslims adhere to Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence or madhab.{{cn, date=June 2023 A minority of Shia Islam, Shias, almost exclusively of the Nizari Isma'ilism, Nizari Ismaili (Seveners) rites are located in the higher mountains of Tajik and Tian Shan. In the western mountains (the Tajiks), almost the entire population of Tajiks (Sarikolis and Wakhis), are Nizari Isma'ilism, Ismaili Shia. In the north, in the Tian Shan, the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz are Sunni. Afaq Khoja Mausoleum and Id Kah Mosque in Kashgar are most important Islamic Xinjiang sites. Emin Minaret in Turfan is a key Islamic site. Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves is a notable Buddhist site. In Awat County also lies a huge park with a statue of Turkish-Muslim philosopher Nasreddin.
In 2008, according to the Xinjiang Transportation Network Plan, the government has focused construction on State Road 314, Alar-Hotan Desert Highway, State Road 218, Qingshui River Line-Yining Highway and State Road 217, as well as other roads.
The construction of the first expressway in the mountainous area of Xinjiang began a new stage in its construction on 24 July 2007. The {{convert, 56, km, abbr=on highway linking Sayram Lake and Guozi Valley in Northern Xinjiang area had cost 2.39 billion yuan. The expressway is designed to improve the speed of national highway 312 in northern Xinjiang. The project started in August 2006 and several stages have been fully operational since March 2007. Over 3,000 construction workers have been involved. The 700 m-long Guozi Valley Cable Bridge over the expressway is now currently being constructed, with the 24 main pile foundations already completed. Highway 312 national highway Xinjiang section, connects Xinjiang with China's east coast, Central Asia, Central and West Asia, plus some parts of Europe. It is a key factor in Xinjiang's economic development. The population it covers is around 40 percent of the overall in Xinjiang, who contribute half of the GDP in the area.
Zulfiya Abdiqadir, head of the Transport Department was quoted as saying that 24,800,000,000 RMB had been invested into Xinjiang's road network in 2010 alone and, by this time, the roads covered approximately {{convert, 152000, km, abbr=on.{{cite web , date=3 March 2011 , editor=Su Qingxia ({{lang, zh-hans, 苏清霞) , title=祖丽菲娅·阿不都卡德尔代表：见证新疆交通事业的日益腾飞 , trans-title=Representative Zulfiya Abdiqadir: evidence that Xinjiang's transport projects are developing more with each passing day , url=http://news.ts.cn/content/2011-03/03/content_5636418.htm , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224215419/http://news.ts.cn/content/2011-03/03/content_5636418.htm , archive-date=24 February 2017 , access-date=24 February 2017 , website=Tianshannet , language=zh-hans
(Another online copy)
* {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBoTAAAAYAAJ , title=Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command , publisher=H.M. Stationery Office , year=1871 , volume=51 * {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMIOAQAAIAAJ , title=Papers by Command , publisher=H.M. Stationery Office , year=1914 , volume=101 * {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Foreign Office. Historical Section, George Walter Prothero , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YZYzAQAAMAAJ , title=Handbooks Prepared Under the Direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, Issues 67–74 , publisher=H.M. Stationery Office , year=1920 * {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Foreign Office. Historical Section , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpowAQAAMAAJ , title=China, Japan, Siam , year=1973 , isbn=978-0-8420-1704-6 , editor-last=George Walter Prothero , series=Peace Handbooks , volume=12 * {{Cite news , last=Burns , first=John F. , date=6 July 1983 , title=On Soviet-China Border, The Thaw Is Just A Trickle , work=The New York Times , url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/06/world/on-soviet-china-border-the-thaw-is-just-a-trickle.html * {{Cite book , last=Bretschneider , first=E. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R98-AAAAYAAJ , title=Notices of the Mediæval Geography and History of Central and Western Asia , publisher=Trübner & Company , year=1876 * {{Cite book , last1=Bridgman , first1=Elijah Coleman , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l5VCAAAAYAAJ , title=The Chinese Repository , last2=Williams , first2=Samuel Wells , publisher=Maruzen Kabushiki Kaisha , year=1837 , edition=reprint * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6is7AQAAMAAJ , title=The Chinese Repository , publisher=Kraus Reprint , year=1837 , edition=reprint , volume=5 * {{Cite book , last=Britannica Educational Publishing , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YcybAAAAQBAJ , title=The Geography of China: Sacred and Historic Places , publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing , year=2010 , isbn=978-1-61530-182-9 , editor-last=Pletcher , editor-first=Kenneth * {{Cite book , last=Britannica Educational Publishing , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVN0Gwx67YC , title=The Geography of China: Sacred and Historic Places , publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group , year=2011 , isbn=978-1-61530-134-8 , editor-last=Pletcherb , editor-first=Kenneth * {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Xinjiang: autonomous region, China , encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica , url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Xinjiang , date=9 August 2018 , orig-date=Online article added 26 July 1999 , last2=Hsieh , first2=Chiao-Min , first1=Victor C. , last1=Falkenheim * {{Cite book , last1=Benson , first1=Linda , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNct0NqCP8gC , title=China's Last Nomads: The History and Culture of China's Kazaks , last2=Svanberg , first2=Ingvar C. , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1998 , isbn=978-1-56324-782-8 * {{Cite book , last=Clarke , first=Michael E. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC , title=Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia – A History , publisher=Taylor & Francis , year=2011 , isbn=978-1-136-82706-8 * {{Cite thesis , last=Clarke , first=Michael Edmund , title=In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759–2004 , url=http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf , year=2004 , location=Brisbane , institution=Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies, Griffith University , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114903/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf , archive-date=6 July 2011 , access-date=7 May 2014 * {{Cite book , last=Crowe , first=David M. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aynFAgAAQBAJ , title=War Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History , publisher=Palgrave Macmillan , year=2014 , isbn=978-1-137-03701-5 * {{Cite book , last1=Dunnell , first1=Ruth W. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC , title=New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde , last2=Elliott , first2=Mark C. , last3=Foret , first3=Philippe , last4=Millward , first4=James A. , publisher=Routledge , year=2004 , isbn=978-1-134-36222-6 * {{Cite book , last1=Debata , first1=Mahesh Ranjan , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xe8CUZ0_r4C , title=China's Minorities: Ethnic-religious Separatism in Xinjiang , last2=Central Asian Studies Programme , publisher=Pentagon Press , year=2007 , isbn=978-81-8274-325-0 * {{Cite web , last=Dickens , first=Mark , year=1990 , title=The Soviets in Xinjiang 1911–1949 , url=http://www.oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023203643/http://www.oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm , archive-date=23 October 2008 , access-date=13 May 2014 , website=OXUS COMMUNICATIONS * {{Cite book , last=Dillon , first=Michael , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g25_AgAAQBAJ , title=Contemporary China – An Introduction , publisher=Routledge , year=2008 , isbn=978-1-134-29054-3 * {{Cite book , last=Dillon , first=Michael , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C , title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest , publisher=Routledge , year=2003 , isbn=978-1-134-36096-3 * {{Cite book , last1=Dupree , first1=Louis , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoIE4laY7JcC , title=The Modernization of Inner Asia , last2=Naby , first2=Eden , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1994 , isbn=978-0-87332-779-4 , editor-last=Black , editor-first=Cyril E. , edition=reprint * {{Cite book , last=Dwyer , first=Arienne M. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciShtCrJijIC , title=Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1 , publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag , year=2007 , isbn=978-3-447-04091-4 * {{Cite book , last=Elliott , first=Mark C. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC , title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China , publisher=Stanford University Press , year=2001 , isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9skBUtc0YTwC , title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Ch'ing 1800–1911 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=1978 , isbn=978-0-521-21447-6 , editor-last=Fairbank , editor-first=John K. , series=Vol. 10, Part 1 * {{Cite book , last=Fisher , first=Richard Swainson , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ik4BAAAAQAAJ , title=The book of the world , publisher=J. H. Colton , year=1852 , volume=2 * {{Cite book , last=Forbes , first=Andrew D. W. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ , title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 , publisher=CUP Archive , year=1986 , isbn=978-0-521-25514-1 * {{Cite web , last=Garnaut , first=Anthony , year=2008 , title=From Yunnan to Xinjiang: Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals , url=http://www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309054654/http://www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf , archive-date=9 March 2012 , access-date=17 April 2014 , publisher=Etudes Orientales N° 25 (1er Semestre 2008) * {{Cite book , last=Gernet , first=Jacques , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqb7L-pKCV8C , title=A History of Chinese Civilization , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=1996 , isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHwPAAAAYAAJ , title=Manchu Grammar, Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies , publisher=Brill Academic Pub , year=2002 , isbn=978-90-04-12307-6 , editor-last=Gorelova , editor-first=Liliya M. , series=Handbook of Oriental Studies , volume=7 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjD8NM4AyT8C , title=Toward Better Governance in China: An Unconventional Pathway of Political Reform , publisher=Lexington Books , year=2009 , isbn=978-0-7391-4029-1 , editor-last=Guo , editor-first=Baogang , editor-last2=Hickey , editor-first2=Dennis V. * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srUkAQAAIAAJ , title=Challenges facing Chinese political development , publisher=Lexington Books , year=2007 , isbn=978-0-7391-2094-1 , editor-last=Guo , editor-first=Sujian , editor-last2=Guo , editor-first2=Baogang * {{Cite book , last=Harris , first=Rachel , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQlxJdK6wGUC , title=Singing the Village: Music, Memory and Ritual Among the Sibe of Xinjiang , publisher=Oxford University Press , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-19-726297-9 * {{Cite book , last=Hill , first=John E. , title=Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd centuries CE , publisher=BookSurge , year=2009 , isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1 , location=Charleston, South Carolina * {{Cite thesis , last=Howell , first=Anthony J. , title=Population Migration and Labor Market Segmentation: Empirical Evidence from Xinjiang, Northwest China , degree=M.S. , publisher=Michigan State University , url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304941674 , isbn=978-1-109-24323-9 , year=2009 , id={{ProQuest, 304941674 * {{Cite book , last=Islamic Culture Board , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wTHjAAAAMAAJ , title=Islamic Culture , publisher=Deccan , year=1971 , isbn=978-0-8420-1704-6 , volume=27–29 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iT7YAQAAQBAJ , title=Return To The Silk Routes , publisher=Routledge , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-136-17519-0 , editor-last=Juntunen , editor-first=Mirja , editor-last2=Schlyter , editor-first2=Birgit N. * {{Cite book , last1=Lattimore , first1=Owen , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28wUAAAAIAAJ , title=Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia , last2=Nachukdorji , first2=Sh , publisher=Brill Archive , year=1955 * {{Cite book , last=Lattimore , first=Owen , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TS6QQAAACAAJ , title=Pivot of Asia; Sinkiang and the inner Asian frontiers of China and Russia , publisher=Little, Brown , year=1950 , isbn=978-0-404-10634-8 * {{Cite book , last=Levene , first=Mark , title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History , publisher=Berghahn , year=2008 , isbn=978-1-84545-452-4 , editor-last=Moses , editor-first=A. Dirk , location=Oxford and New York , pages=183–204 , chapter=Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocides , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZavAkGUNdSkC , title=Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration in China , publisher=Taylor & Francis , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-203-40429-4 , editor-last=Liew , editor-first=Leong H. , editor-last2=Wang , editor-first2=Shaoguang * {{Cite journal , last=Lin , first=Hsiao-ting , author-link=Lin Hsiao-ting , year=2007 , title=Nationalists, Muslims Warlords, and the "Great Northwestern Development" in Pre-Communist China , url=http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/CEF/Quarterly/February_2007/Lin.pdf , journal=China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly , volume=5 , issn=1653-4212 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923025246/http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/CEF/Quarterly/February_2007/Lin.pdf , archive-date=23 September 2010 , number=1 * {{Cite book , last=Lipman , first=Jonathan Neaman , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC , title=Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China , publisher=University of Washington Press , year=1998 , isbn=978-0-295-80055-4 * {{Cite book , last1=Liu , first1=Tao Tao , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ , title=Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China , last2=Faure , first2=David , publisher=Hong Kong University Press , year=1996 , isbn=978-962-209-402-4 * {{Cite book , last=Lorge , first=Peter , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htPxVEh3owAC , title=War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795 , publisher=Routledge , year=2006 , isbn=978-1-134-37286-7 * {{Cite book , last=Marks , first=Robert B. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iXVHL2mYajAC , title=China: Its Environment and History , publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers , year=2011 , isbn=978-1-4422-1277-0 * {{Cite book , last=Martin , first=Robert Montgomery , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SV9AAAAAYAAJ , title=China; Political, Commercial, and Social: In an Official Report to Her Majesty's Government , publisher=J. Madden , year=1847 , volume=1 , location=London * {{Cite book , last=Martyn , first=Norma , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hD3yAAAAMAAJ , title=The Silk Road , publisher=Methuen , year=1987 , isbn=978-0-454-00836-4 , location=Australia * {{Cite journal , last=Meehan , first=Lieutenant Colonel Dallace L. , date=May–June 1980 , title=Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Military implications for the decades ahead , url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html , journal=Air University Review , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513084042/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html , archive-date=13 May 2014 , access-date=13 May 2014 * {{Cite book , last1=Mentelle , first1=Edme , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CghUAAAAQAAJ , title=Géographie mathématique, physique & politique de toutes les parties du monde , last2=Malte Conrad Brun , last3=Pierre-Etienne Herbin de Halle , publisher=H. Tardieu , year=1804 , volume=12 * {{Cite book , last=Mesny , first=William , title=Mesny's Chinese Miscellany , year=1896 , volume=II , location=Shanghai , author-link=William Mesny * {{Cite book , last=Mesny , first=William , title=Mesny's Chinese Miscellany , year=1899 , volume=III , location=Shanghai , author-link=William Mesny * {{Cite book , last=Mesny , first=William , title=Mesny's Chinese Miscellany , year=1905 , volume=IV , location=Shanghai , author-link=William Mesny * {{Cite book , last=Michell , first=Robert , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reBFF3fWjPAC , title=Eastern Turkestan and Dzungaria, and the rebellion of the Tungans and Taranchis, 1862 to 1866 , publisher=Sagwan Press , year=2015 , isbn=978-1-340-54298-6 Reprint of: {{Cite book , title=Notes on the Central Asiatic Question , publisher=Office of Superintendent of Government Printing , year=1870 , editor-last=Romanovski , editor-first=M. , location=Calcutta * {{Cite book , last=Millward , first=James A. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ , title=Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 , publisher=Stanford University Press , year=1998 , isbn=978-0-8047-2933-8 * {{Cite book , last=Millward , first=James A. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC , title=Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang , publisher=Columbia University Press , year=2007 , isbn=978-0-231-13924-3 * {{Cite book , last=Morozova , first=Irina Y. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-1GRAgAAQBAJ , title=Socialist Revolutions in Asia: The Social History of Mongolia in the 20th Century , publisher=Routledge , year=2009 , isbn=978-1-135-78437-9 * {{Cite book , last=Myer , first=Will , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViEVNqYEG2oC , title=Islam and Colonialism Western Perspectives on Soviet Asia , publisher=Routledge , year=2003 , isbn=978-1-135-78583-3 * {{Cite book , last1=Nathan , first1=Andrew James , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etRkjLv8AosC , title=China's Search for Security , last2=Scobell , first2=Andrew , publisher=Columbia University Press , year=2013 , isbn=978-0-231-51164-3 * {{Cite book , last=Newby , first=L. J. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C , title=The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C.1760-1860 , publisher=BRILL , year=2005 , isbn=978-90-04-14550-4 , series=Brill's Inner Asian Library , volume=16 * {{Cite book , last=Nyman , first=Lars-Erik , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JNlwAAAAMAAJ , title=Great Britain and Chinese, Russian and Japanese interests in Sinkiang, 1918–1934 , publisher=Esselte studium , year=1977 , isbn=978-91-24-27287-6 , series=Lund studies in international history , volume=8 * {{Cite book , last=Paine , first=S. C. M. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMrx5Rw5n0AC , title=Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1996 , isbn=978-1-56324-724-8 * {{Cite book , last=Palmer , first=James , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_2oJYvNHAQC , title=The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia , publisher=Basic Books , year=2011 , isbn=978-0-465-02207-6 , edition=reprint{{dead link, date=September 2023 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite book , last=Parker , first=Charles H. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKgs8-pj4_YC , title=Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age, 1400–1800 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=2010 , isbn=978-1-139-49141-9 * {{Cite book , last=Pegg , first=Carole , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEGTwiCvd8C , title=Mongolian Music, Dance, & Oral Narrative: Performing Diverse Identities , publisher=University of Washington Press , year=2001 , isbn=978-0-295-98030-0 , volume=1 * {{Cite book , last=Perdue , first=Peter C. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC , title=China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia , publisher=Harvard University Press , year=2009 , isbn=978-0-674-04202-5 , edition=reprint * {{Citation , last=Perdue , first=Peter C. , title=Military Mobilization in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century China, Russia, and Mongolia , date=October 1996 , journal=Modern Asian Studies , volume=30 , issue=4 Special Issue: War in Modern China , pages=757–793 , doi=10.1017/s0026749x00016796 , jstor=312949 , s2cid=146587527 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5p_rjMLgj_8C , title=State Capitalism, Contentious Politics and Large-Scale Social Change , publisher=BRILL , year=2011 , isbn=978-90-04-19445-8 , editor-last=Pollard , editor-first=Vincent , series=Studies in Critical Social Sciences , volume=29 * {{Cite book , last1=Powers , first1=John , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVlyX6iSDEQC , title=Historical Dictionary of Tibet , last2=Templemanb , first2=David , publisher=Scarecrow Press , year=2012 , isbn=978-0-8108-7984-3 * {{Cite book , last=Prakash , first=Buddha , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-1HAAAAMAAJb , title=The modern approach to history , publisher=University Publishers , year=1963{{dead link, date=September 2023 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite book , last=Rahul , first=Ram , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tI77bC989PoC , title=March of Central Asia , publisher=Indus Publishing , year=2000 , isbn=978-81-7387-109-2 * {{Cite book , last1=Reed , first1=J. Todd , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC , title=The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat , last2=Raschke , first2=Diana , publisher=ABC-CLIO , year=2010 , isbn=978-0-313-36540-9 * {{Cite book , last=Roberts , first=John A.G. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZNiAQAAQBAJ , title=A History of China , publisher=Palgrave Macmillan , year=2011 , isbn=978-0-230-34411-2 , edition=revised , access-date=13 October 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429114744/https://books.google.com/books?id=GZNiAQAAQBAJ , archive-date=29 April 2016 * {{Cite book , last1=Rudelson , first1=Justin Jon , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=905wAAAAMAAJ , title=Bones in the Sand: The Struggle to Create Uighur Nationalist Ideologies in Xinjiang, China , last2=Rudelson , first2=Justin Ben-Adam , publisher=Harvard University , year=1992 , edition=reprint * {{Cite book , last=Rudelson , first=Justin Jon , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC , title=Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China's Silk Road , publisher=Columbia University Press , year=1997 , isbn=978-0-231-10786-0 {{ISBN, 0-231-10787-0 (pbk.). * {{Cite news , last=Ryan , first=William L. , date=2 January 1969 , title=Russians Back Revolution in Province Inside China , page=3 , work=The Lewiston Daily Sun , url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19690102&id=ylsgAAAAIBAJ&pg=4665,144363 * {{Cite book , last=Sanders , first=Alan J. K. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C , title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia , publisher=Scarecrow Press , year=2010 , isbn=978-0-8108-7452-7 , edition=3rd, illustrated , series=Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East , volume=74 * {{Cite book , last=Shelton , first=Dinah C. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-8YAAAAIAAJ , title=Encyclopedia of genocide and crimes against humanity , publisher=Macmillan Reference , year=2005 , isbn=978-0-02-865850-6 , editor-last=Shelton , editor-first=Dinah , volume=3 * {{Cite book , title=Aspects of Altaic Civilization III: Proceedings of the Thirtieth Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, June 19–25, 1987 , editor-last=Sinor , editor-first=Denis , volume=3 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWbAbwxMZXEC , title=Aspects of Altaic Civilization III: Proceedings of the Thirtieth Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, June 19–25, 1987 , publisher=Psychology Press , year=1990 , isbn=978-0-7007-0380-7 , editor-last=Sinor , editor-first=Denis * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC , title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-7656-1318-9 , editor-last=Starr , editor-first=S. Frederick * {{Cite book , last1=Seymour , first1=James D. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHwkn9pnjSwC , title=New Ghosts, Old Ghosts: Prisons and Labor Reform Camps in China , last2=Anderson , first2=Richard , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1999 , isbn=978-0-7656-0510-8 , series=Socialism and Social Movements Series * {{Cite book , last=Tamm , first=Eric , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbpG8QEguXEC , title=The Horse that Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road, and the Rise of Modern China , publisher=Counterpoint , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-58243-876-4 , access-date=13 October 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801064813/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbpG8QEguXEC , archive-date=1 August 2020 * {{Cite book , last=Theobald , first=Ulrich , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUodAAAAQBAJ , title=War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776) , publisher=BRILL , year=2013 , isbn=978-90-04-25567-8 * {{Cite news , last=Tinibai , first=Kenjali , date=28 May 2010 , title=China and Kazakhstan: A Two-Way Street , work=Bloomberg Businessweek , url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705185320/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm , archive-date=5 July 2015 * {{Cite news , last=Tinibai , first=Kenjali , date=27 May 2010 , title=Kazakhstan and China: A Two-Way Street , work=Transitions Online , url=http://www.tol.org/client/article/21490-kazakhstan-and-china-a-two-way-street.html , url-access=subscription * {{Cite book , last=Tyler , first=Christian , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C , title=Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang , publisher=Rutgers University Press , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-8135-3533-3 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OkAVAgAAQBAJ , title=Eurasian Corridors of Interconnection: From the South China to the Caspian Sea , publisher=Routledge , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-135-07875-1 , editor-last=Walcott , editor-first=Susan M. , editor-last2=Johnson , editor-first2=Corey * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXXnd81uoMoC , title=China and the New International Order , publisher=Taylor & Francis , year=2008 , isbn=978-0-203-93226-1 , editor-last=Wang , editor-first=Gungwu , editor-last2=Zheng , editor-first2=Yongnian * {{Cite book , last=Wayne , first=Martin I. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ybmWJXjxUYC , title=China's War on Terrorism: Counter-Insurgency, Politics and Internal Security , publisher=Routledge , year=2007 , isbn=978-1-134-10623-3 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEdQ1IuJFH4C , title=China's Post-Jiang Leadership Succession: Problems and Perspectivesb , publisher=World Scientific , year=2002 , isbn=978-981-270-650-8 , editor-last=Wong , editor-first=John , editor-last2=Zheng , editor-first2=Yongnian * {{Cite book , last=Westad , first=Odd Arne , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uL8NoXZtyxMCb , title=Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 , publisher=Basic Books , year=2012 , isbn=978-0-465-02936-5{{dead link, date=September 2023 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEdQ1IuJFH4C , title=China's Post-Jiang Leadership Succession: Problems and Perspectives , publisher=World Scientific , year=2002 , isbn=978-981-270-650-8 , editor-last=Wong , editor-first=John , editor-last2=Zheng , editor-first2=Yongnian * {{Cite journal , last=Zhao , first=Gang , year=2006 , title=Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century , journal=Modern China , volume=32 , pages=3–30 , doi=10.1177/0097700405282349 , jstor=20062627 , s2cid=144587815 , number=1 * {{Cite book , last=Znamenski , first=Andrei , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J6T2uz1KSoC , title=Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia , publisher=Quest Books , year=2011 , isbn=978-0-8356-0891-6 , edition=illustrated {{refend
Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province, {{flag, Tajikistan
Badakhshan Province, {{flag, Afghanistan , Centre = Xinjiang , East = Gansu , Southwest = {{flag, Gilgit-Baltistan, {{flag, Pakistan
{{flag, Ladakh, {{flag, India
Aksai Chin, Disputed region of Aksai Chin , South = Tibet Autonomous Region , Southeast = Qinghai {{Xinjiang topics {{Xinjiang {{Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China {{Inner Asia {{Authority control Xinjiang, 1955 establishments in China Articles containing video clips Autonomous regions of China Historical regions Iranian languages regions Inner Asia States and territories established in 1955 Turkic autonomous regions in China Western China
Names
{{Infobox Chinese , pic = Xinjiang (Chinese characters).svg , piccap = "Xīnjiāng" in Chinese characters , picupright = 0.5 , c = {{linktext, lang=zh, 新疆 , l = "New Frontier" , p = Xīnjiāng , w = {{tone superscript, Hsin1-chiang1 , mi = {{IPAc-cmn, x, in, 1, ., j, iang, 1 , bpmf = ㄒㄧㄣ ㄐㄧㄤ , gr = Shinjiang , mps = Shinjiang , tp = Sinjiang , myr = Syīnjyāng , showflag = p , xej = ثٍڭِیَانْ , zh-dungan = Щинҗён , psp = Sinkiang , j = san1 goeng1 , y = Sān'gēung , ci = {{IPAc-yue, s, an, 1, -, g, oeng, 1 , poj = Sin-kiong , buc = Sĭng-giŏng , teo = Sing-kiang , h = Sîn-kiông , altname = Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region , s2 = {{nowrap, {{linktext, 新疆维吾尔自治区 , t2 = {{nowrap, {{linktext, 新疆維吾爾自治區 , p2 = {{nowrap, Xīnjiāng Wéiwú'ěr Zìzhìqū , bpmf2 = {{unbulleted list, ㄒㄧㄣ ㄐㄧㄤ, ㄨㄟˊ ㄨˊ ㄦˇ, ㄗˋ ㄓˋ ㄑㄩ , w2 = {{tone superscript, Hsin1-chiang1 Wei2-wu2-erh3 Tzu4-chih4-chʻü1 , mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn, x, in, 1, ., j, iang, 1, -, wei, 2, ., wu, 2, ., er, 3, -, zi, 4, ., zhi, 4, ., qu, 1 , gr2 = Shinjiang Weiwueel Tzyhjyhchiu , mps2 = Shinjiang Wheihuel Tzyhgukhickhu , myr2 = Syīnjyāng Wéiwúěr Dz̀jr̀chyū , tp2 = Sinjiang Wéiwú'ěr Zìhjhìhcyu , wuu2 = {{nowrap, sin cian vi ng el zy zy chiu , poj2 = Sin-kiong Ûi-ngô͘-ní Chū-tī-khu , teo2 = Sing-kiang Jûi-û-jéu Tsĕu-tī-khu , buc2 = Sĭng-giŏng Mì-ngù-ī Cê̤ṳ-dê-kṳ̆ , h2 = Sîn-kiông Vì-ngâ-ngì Tshṳ-tshṳ-khî , xej2 = ثٍڭِیَانْ وِوُعَر زِجِکِیُوِ , zh-dungan2 = Щинҗён Уйгур Зыҗычү , mon = Шиньжян Уйгурын өөртөө засах орон , mong = {{MongolUnicode, ᠰᠢᠨᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩᠤᠶᠢᠭᠤᠷ
ᠤᠨ
ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠡᠨ
ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ
ᠣᠷᠤᠨ , monr = Sinjiyaŋ Uyiɣur-un öbertegen jasaqu orun
(Classical)
{{longitem, Shin'jyan Uiguryn öörtöö zasakh oron (Khalkha) , uig = {{big, شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى , uly = {{nowrap, Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayoni , uyy = {{nowrap, Xinjang Uyƣur Aptonom Rayoni , sgs = {{nowrap, Xinjang Uyĝur Aptonom Rayoni , usy = Шинҗаң Уйғур Аптоном Райони , lang1 = kk , lang1_content = {{nowrap, {{lang, kk-Arab, شينجياڭ ۇيعۇر اۆتونوميالىق رايونى
{{lang, kk, Шыңжаң Ұйғыр автономиялық ауданы
{{lang, kk-Latn, Shyńjań Uıǵyr aýtonomııalyq aýdany , lang2 = ky , lang2_content = {{nowrap, {{lang, ky-Arab, شئنجاڭ ۇيعۇر اپتونوم رايونۇ
{{lang, ky, Шинжаң-Уйгур автоном району
{{lang, ky-Latn, Şincañ-Uyğur avtonom rayonu , lang3 = xal , lang3_content = {{MongolUnicode, ᠱᡅᠨᡓᡅᡕᠠᡊ
ᡇᡕᡅᡎᡇᠷ
ᡅᠨ
ᡄᡋᡄᠷᡄᡃᠨ
ᠴᠠᠰᠠᡍᡇ
ᡆᠷᡇᠨ, style=max-height:5em; word-wrap:normal
Šinǰiyang Uyiγur-in ebereen zasaqu orun , order = st , s = , t = , mnc = {{ManchuSibeUnicode, ᡳᠴᡝ
ᠵᡝᠴᡝᠨ
ᡠᡳᡤᡠᡵ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᠩᡤᠠ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ , mnc_v = Ice Jecen Uigur beye dasangga golo , lang4 = sjo , lang4_content = {{MongolUnicode, ᠰᡞᠨᡪᠶᠠᡢ
ᡠᡞᡤᡠᠷ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᡢᡤᠠ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ, style=max-height:4em; word-wrap:normal
Sinjyang Uigur beye dasangga golo , lang5 = srh , lang5_content = {{lang, srh-Arab, شىنجوڭ ئۈىغۈر ئوفتۇنۇم رايۇن
{{lang, srh, Xinjong Üighür Oftunum Rayun{{efn, name="Sarikoli", There is no official orthography for Sarikoli in China. This is the spelling used in the Sarikoli-Chinese dictionary written by linguist Gao Erqiang. The general region of Xinjiang has been known by many different names throughout time. These names include Altishahr, the historical Uyghur language, Uyghur name for the southern half of the region referring to "the six cities" of the Tarim Basin, as well as Khotan, Khotay, Chinese Tartary, High Tartary, East Chagatay (it was the eastern part of the Chagatai Khanate), Moghulistan ("land of the Mongols"), Kashgaria, Little Bokhara, Serindia (due to Indian cultural influence){{sfnp, Tyler, 2004,
3
} and, in Chinese, ''Xiyu'' ({{lang, zh, 西域), meaning "Western Regions".{{sfnp, Hill, 2009, pp=xviii, 60 Between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE, the Han Empire established the Protectorate of the Western Regions or Xiyu Protectorate ({{lang, zh-hant, 西域都護府) in an effort to secure the profitable routes of the Silk Road. The Western Regions during the Tang dynasty, Tang era were known as ''Qixi'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 磧西). Qi refers to the Gobi Desert while Xi refers to the west. The Tang Empire had established the ''Protectorate General to Pacify the West'' or ''Anxi Protectorate'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 安西都護府) in 640 to control the region. During the Qing dynasty, the northern part of Xinjiang, Dzungaria was known as Zhunbu ({{lang, zh-hant, 準部, "Dzungar people, Dzungar region") and the Southern Tarim Basin was known as ''Huijiang'' ({{lang, zh, 回疆, "Muslim Frontier"). Both regions merged after Qing dynasty suppressed the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas in 1759 and became the region of "Xiyu Xinjiang" ({{lang, zh-hant, 西域新疆, literally "Western Regions' New Frontier"), later simplified as "Xinjiang" ({{lang, zh-hant, 新疆; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanized as "Sinkiang"). The official name was given during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor in 1878. It can be translated as "new frontier" or "new territory". In fact, the term "Xinjiang" was used in many other places conquered, but never were ruled by Chinese empires directly until the gradual ''Tusi#Gaitu Guiliu, Gaitu Guiliu'' administrative reform, including regions in Southern China. For instance, present-day Jinchuan County in Sichuan was then known as "Jinchuan Xinjiang", Zhaotong in Yunnan was named directly as "Xinjiang", Qiandongnan region, Anshun and Zhenning Buyei and Miao Autonomous County, Zhenning were named as "Liangyou Xinjiang" etc. In 1955, Xinjiang Province was renamed "Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region". The name that was originally proposed was simply "Xinjiang Autonomous Region" because that was the name for the imperial territory. This proposal was not well-received by Uyghurs in the Communist Party, who found the name colonialist in nature since it meant "new territory". Saifuddin Azizi, the first chairman of Xinjiang, registered his strong objections to the proposed name with Mao Zedong, arguing that "autonomy is not given to mountains and rivers. It is given to particular nationalities." Some Uyghur Communists proposed the name "Tian Shan Uyghur Autonomous Region" instead. The Han Communists in the central government denied the name Xinjiang was colonialist and denied that the central government could be colonialists both because they were communists and because China was a victim of colonialism. However, due to the Uyghur complaints, the administrative region would be named "Xinjiang ''Uygur'' Autonomous Region".{{sfnp, Bovingdon, 2010, p=199{{cite podcast , url=https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/episode-39-ethnicity-tibet-and-xinjiang-in-the-prc/id1337064684?i=1000446900247, title= Episode 39: Ethnicity, Tibet, and Xinjiang in the PRC, website=podcasts.apple.com, publisher=Beyond Huaxia: A College History of China and Japan, host=Justin M. Jacobs, date=14 August 2019, time=60:00–62:18, access-date=19 March 2022
Description
Xinjiang consists of two main geographically, historically and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names, Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, before Qing China unified them into one political entity called Xinjiang Province in 1884. At the time of the Qing conquest in 1759, Dzungaria was inhabited by steppe dwelling, nomadic Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhist Dzungar people, while the Tarim Basin was inhabited by sedentary, oasis dwelling, Turkic-speaking Muslim farmers, now known as the Uyghurs, who were governed separately until 1884.
The Qing dynasty was well aware of the differences between the former Buddhist Mongol area to the north of the Tian Shan and the Turkic Muslim area south of the Tian Shan and ruled them in separate administrative units at first.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996, 69
} However, Qing people began to think of both areas as part of one distinct region called Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
70
} The very concept of Xinjiang as one distinct geographic identity was created by the Qing.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
67
} During the Qing rule, no sense of "regional identity" was held by ordinary Xinjiang people; rather, Xinjiang's distinct identity was given to the region by the Qing, since it had distinct geography, history and culture, while at the same time it was created by the Chinese, multicultural, settled by Han and Hui and separated from Central Asia for over a century and a half.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
77
} In the late 19th century, it was still being proposed by some people that two separate regions be created out of Xinjiang, the area north of the Tianshan and the area south of the Tianshan, while it was being argued over whether to turn Xinjiang into a province.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
78
} Xinjiang is a large, sparsely populated area, spanning over 1.6 million km2 (comparable in size to Iran), which takes up about one sixth of the country's territory. Xinjiang borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and India's Leh district in Ladakh to the south, Qinghai and Gansu provinces to the east, Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii Province, Bayan-Ölgii, Govi-Altai Province, Govi-Altai and Khovd Provinces) to the east, Russia's Altai Republic to the north and Kazakhstan (Almaty Region, Almaty and East Kazakhstan Regions), Kyrgyzstan (Issyk-Kul Region, Issyk-Kul, Naryn Region, Naryn and Osh Regions), Tajikistan's Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, Afghanistan's Badakhshan Province and Pakistan's Gilgit-Baltistan to the west. The east-west chain of the Tian Shan separate Dzungaria in the north from the Tarim Basin in the south. Dzungaria is a dry steppe and the Tarim Basin contains the massive Taklamakan Desert, surrounded by oases. In the east is the Turpan Depression. In the west, the Tian Shan split, forming the Ili River valley. {{clear left
History
Early history
{{History of Xinjiang {{Main, History of Xinjiang {{Further, Western Regions, Kingdom of Khotan, Shule Kingdom, Shanshan, Saka, Tocharians, Sogdia
The earliest inhabitants of the region encompassing modern day Xinjiang were genetically of Ancient North Eurasian and East Asian people, Northeast Asian origin, with later geneflow from during the Bronze Age linked to the expansion of early Indo-European languages, Indo-Europeans. These population dynamics gave rise to a heterogeneous demographic makeup. Iron Age samples from Xinjiang show intensified levels of admixture between Steppe pastoralists and northeast Asians, with northern and eastern Xinjiang showing more affinities with northeast Asians, and southern Xinjiang showing more affinity with central Asians.
Between 2009 and 2015, the remains of 92 individuals in the Xiaohe Cemetery were analyzed for Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA markers. Genetic analyses of the mummies showed that the paternal lineages of the Xiaohe people were of European{{cite book , last1=Betts , first1=Allison , title=The Cultures of Ancient Xinjiang, western China: Crossroads of the Silk Roads , date=2019 , publisher=Archaeopress , location=Summertown, Oxford , isbn=978-1-78969-407-9 , page=50 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxUSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 "The first settlers had European paternal lineages, and maternal lineages of European and Siberian origin." [...] "a pattern that continued in to Xiaohe Phase II, in layers 3, 2 and 1, where the genes show greater mixing still (Li, et al. 2015). The origin of the mitochondrial lineages is more widespread, with the presence of west Eurasian, east Eurasian and Indian lineages." [...] "This may account for the marked genetic change over time in the Xiaohe population (Li 2010, Li, et al. 2010, Li et al. 2015)." The later Xiaohe people carried diverse east Eurasian maternal lineages, including a dominance of C4 and C5, generally linked to southern Siberia." origin, while the maternal lineages of the early population were diverse, featuring both Genetic history of East Asians, East Eurasian and Genetic history of Europe, West Eurasian lineages, as well as a small number of Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia, Indian lineages. Over time, the west Eurasian maternal lineages were gradually replaced by east Eurasian maternal lineages. This implies a pattern of outmarriage to women from Siberian communities, which, over many hundreds of years, led to the loss of the original diversity of Mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA lineages observed in the earlier Xiaohe population.{{cite book , last1=Schurr , first1=Theodore , title=Globalization , date=2015 , publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology , location=Philadelphia , isbn=978-1-934536-78-0 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DD94BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 "In this regard, genetic data have recently been discovered from individuals interred in the Xiaohe cemetery from the Tarim Basin. Interestingly, they were shown to have both East Eurasian and West Eurasian mtDNA lineages, but only West Eurasian NRY lineages (Li et al 2010)."{{cite journal , author1=Chunxiang Li , author2=Hongjie Li , author3=Yinqiu Cui , author4=Chengzhi Xie , author5=Dawei Cai , author6=Wenying Li , author7=Victor H Mair , author8=Zhi Xu , author9=Quanchao Zhang , author10=Idelis Abuduresule , author11=Li Jin , author12=Hong Zhu , author13=Hui Zhou , title=Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age , journal=BMC Biology , volume=8 , issue=15 , page=15, year=2010, pmid=20163704 , pmc=2838831 , doi=10.1186/1741-7007-8-15 , doi-access=free
The Tarim population was therefore always notably diverse, reflecting a complex history of admixture between people of Ancient North Eurasian, South Asian and East Asian people, Northeast Asian descent. The Tarim mummies have been found in various locations in the Western Tarim Basin such as Loulan Kingdom, Loulan, the Xiaohe Cemetery, Xiaohe Tomb complex and Qäwrighul culture, Qäwrighul. These mummies have been previously suggested to have been Tocharian or Indo-European speakers, but recent evidence suggest that the earliest mummies belonged to a distinct population unrelated to Indo-European pastoralists and spoke an unknown language, probably a language isolate.{{Cite journal, last1=Zhang, first1=Fan, last2=Ning, first2=Chao, last3=Scott, first3=Ashley, last4=Fu, first4=Qiaomei, last5=Bjørn, first5=Rasmus, last6=Li, first6=Wenying, last7=Wei, first7=Dong, last8=Wang, first8=Wenjun, last9=Fan, first9=Linyuan, last10=Abuduresule, first10=Idilisi, last11=Hu, first11=Xingjun, date=November 2021, title=The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies, journal=Nature, language=en, volume=599, issue=7884, pages=256–261, doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7, issn=1476-4687, pmc=8580821, pmid=34707286, bibcode=2021Natur.599..256Z, quote=Using qpAdm, we modelled the Tarim Basin individuals as a mixture of two ancient autochthonous Asian genetic groups: the ANE, represented by an Upper Palaeolithic individual from the Afontova Gora site in the upper Yenisei River region of Siberia (AG3) (about 72%), and ancient Northeast Asians, represented by Baikal_EBA (about 28%) (Supplementary Data 1E and Fig. 3a). Tarim_EMBA2 from Beifang can also be modelled as a mixture of Tarim_EMBA1 (about 89%) and Baikal_EBA (about 11%).
Although many of the Tarim mummies were classified as Caucasoid by anthropologists, Tarim Basin sites also contain both "Caucasoid" and "Mongoloid" remains, indicating contact between newly arrived western nomads and agricultural communities in the east. Mummies have been found in various locations in the Western Tarim Basin such as Loulan Kingdom, Loulan, the Xiaohe Cemetery, Xiaohe Tomb complex and Qäwrighul culture, Qäwrighul.
Nomadic tribes such as the Yuezhi, Saka and Wusun were probably part of the migration of Indo-European speakers who had settled in Western Central Asia long before the Xiongnu and Han Chinese. By the time the Han dynasty under Emperor Wu of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) wrested the western Tarim Basin away from its previous overlords (the Xiongnu), it was inhabited by various peoples who included the Proto-Indo-Europeans, Indo-European-speaking Tocharians in Turfan and Kucha, the Saka peoples centered in the Shule Kingdom and the Kingdom of Khotan, the various Tibeto-Burman languages, Tibeto-Burmese groups (especially people related to the Qiang people, Qiang) as well as the Han Chinese people.{{cite book, first=Xavier, last=Tremblay, year=2007, chapter=The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century, editor1=Ann Heirman, name-list-style=amp, editor2=Stephan Peter Bumbacker, title=The Spread of Buddhism, location=Leiden & Boston, publisher=Koninklijke Brill, page=77, isbn=978-90-04-15830-6 Some linguists posit that the Tocharian language had high amounts of influence from Paleosiberian languages, such as Uralic languages, Uralic and Yeniseian languages.
Yuezhi culture is documented in the region. The first known reference to the Yuezhi was in 645 BC by the Chinese chancellor Guan Zhong in his work, ''Guanzi (text), Guanzi'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 管子, Guanzi Essays: 73: 78: 80: 81). He described the ''Yúshì'', {{lang, zh-hant, 禺氏 (or ''Niúshì'', {{lang, zh, 牛氏), as a people from the north-west who supplied jade to the Chinese from the nearby mountains (also known as Yushi) in Gansu. The longtime jade supply from the Tarim Basin is well-documented archaeologically: "It is well known that ancient Chinese rulers had a strong attachment to jade. All of the jade items excavated from the tomb of Fuhao of the Shang dynasty, more than 750 pieces, were from Hotan, Khotan in modern Xinjiang. As early as the mid-first millennium BC, the Yuezhi engaged in the jade trade, of which the major consumers were the rulers of agricultural China."
Crossed by the Northern Silk Road, the Tarim and Dzungaria regions were known as the Western Regions. At the beginning of the Han dynasty (206 BC{{snd220 AD) the region was ruled by the Xiongnu, a powerful nomadic people based in present-day Mongolia. During the 2nd century BC, the Han dynasty prepared for Han–Xiongnu War, war against Xiongnu when Emperor Wu of Han dispatched Zhang Qian to explore the mysterious kingdoms to the west and form an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu. As a result of the war, the Chinese controlled the strategic region from the Ordos Loop, Ordos and Gansu Hexi Corridor, corridor to Lop Nor. They separated the Xiongnu from the Qiang people on the south and gained direct access to the Western Regions. Han China sent Zhang Qian as an envoy to the states of the region, beginning several decades of struggle between the Xiongnu and Han China in which China eventually prevailed. In 60 BC, Han China established the Protectorate of the Western Regions ({{lang, zh-hant, 西域都護府) at Wulei ({{lang, zh-hant, 烏壘, near modern Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Luntai), to oversee the region as far west as the Pamir Mountains. The protectorate was seized during the civil war against Wang Mang (r. AD 9–23), returning to Han control in 91 due to the efforts of general Ban Chao.
The Western Jin dynasty (265–420), Jin dynasty succumbed to successive waves of invasions by nomads from the north at the beginning of the 4th century. The short-lived kingdoms that ruled northwestern China one after the other, including Former Liang, Former Qin, Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms), Later Liang and Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms), Western Liáng, all attempted to maintain the protectorate, with varying degrees of success. After the final reunification of Northern China under the Northern Wei empire, its protectorate controlled what is now the southeastern region of Xinjiang. Local states such as Shule, Yutian County, Xinjiang, Yutian, Guizi and Qiemo County, Qiemo controlled the western region, while the central region around Turpan was controlled by Gaochang, remnants of a state (Northern Liang) that once ruled part of what is now Gansu province in northwestern China.
During the Tang dynasty, a Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, series of expeditions were conducted against the Western Turkic Khaganate and their vassals: the oasis states of southern Xinjiang. Emperor Taizong's campaign against Xiyu states, Campaigns against the oasis states began under Emperor Taizong of Tang, Emperor Taizong with the Tang campaign against Karakhoja, annexation of Gaochang in 640.{{cite book , first2=Howard J. , last2=Wechsler , first1=Denis , last1=Twitchett , chapter=Kao-tsung (reign 649-83) and the Empress Wu: The Inheritor and the Usurper , editor1 = Denis Twitchett , editor2=John Fairbank , title = The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China Part I , year=1979 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=978-0-521-21446-9 , page=228 The nearby kingdom of Karasahr was Tang campaigns against Karasahr, captured by the Tang in 644 and the kingdom of Kucha was Conquest of Kucha, conquered in 649.{{cite book , first=Jonathan Karem , last=Skaff , editor=Nicola Di Cosmo , title=Military Culture in Imperial China , year=2009 , publisher=Harvard University Press , isbn=978-0-674-03109-8 , pages=183–185 The Tang Dynasty then established the Protectorate General to Pacify the West ({{lang, zh-Hant, 安西都護府) or Anxi Protectorate, in 640 to control the region.
During the Anshi Rebellion, which nearly destroyed the Tang dynasty, Tibetan Empire, Tibet invaded the Tang on a broad front from Xinjiang to Yunnan. It occupied the Tang capital of Chang'an in 763 for 16 days, and controlled southern Xinjiang by the end of the century. The Uyghur Khaganate took control of Northern Xinjiang, much of Central Asia and Mongolia at the same time.
As Tibet and the Uyghur Khaganate declined in the mid-9th century, the Kara-Khanid Khanate (a confederation of Turkic tribes including the Karluks, Chigils and Yaghmas){{cite book , title = A history of Inner Asia , first = Svatopluk , last = Soucek , chapter = Chapter 5 – The Qarakhanids , publisher = Cambridge University Press , year = 2000 , isbn = 978-0-521-65704-4 , chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofinneras00souc controlled Western Xinjiang during the 10th and 11th centuries. After the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia was destroyed by the Kirghiz in 840, branches of the Uyghurs established themselves in Gaochang, Qocha (Karakhoja) and Beshbalik (near present-day Turfan and Ürümqi). The Uyghur state remained in eastern Xinjiang until the 13th century, although it was ruled by foreign overlords. The Kara-Khanids converted to Islam. The Uyghur state in Eastern Xinjiang, initially Manichaeism, Manichean, later converted to Buddhism.
Remnants of the Liao dynasty from Manchuria entered Xinjiang in 1132, fleeing rebellion by the neighboring Jurchens. They established a new empire, the Qara Khitai (Western Liao), which ruled the Kara-Khanid and Uyghur-held parts of the Tarim Basin for the next century. Although Khitan language, Khitan and Chinese were the primary administrative languages, Persian and Uyghur were also used.
{{anchor, Islamification of XinjiangIslamization
{{Islam and China, places Present-day Xinjiang consisted of the Tarim Basin and Dzungaria and was originally inhabited by Indo-European Tocharians and Iranian Sakas who practiced Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. The Turfan and Tarim Basins were inhabited by speakers of Tocharian languages,{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,15
} with Caucasian mummies found in the region.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
16
} The area became Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin, Islamified during the 10th century with the conversion of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, who occupied Kashgar. During the mid-10th century, the Saka Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan was attacked by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanid ruler Musa; the Karakhanid leader Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan around 1006.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
55
}
Mongol period
{{see also, Yarkent Khanate, Turpan Khanate
After Genghis Khan unified Mongolia and began his advance west the Uyghur state in the Turpan-Urumchi region offered its allegiance to the Mongols in 1209, contributing taxes and troops to the Mongol imperial effort. In return, the Uyghur rulers retained control of their kingdom; Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire conquered the Qara Khitai in 1218. Xinjiang was a stronghold of Ögedei Khan and later came under the control of his descendant, Kaidu. This branch of the Mongol family kept the Yuan dynasty at bay until their rule ended.
During the Mongol Empire era the Yuan dynasty vied with the Chagatai Khanate for rule of the region and the latter controlled most of it. After the Chagatai Khanate divided into smaller khanates during the mid-14th century, the politically-fractured region was ruled by a number of Persianized Mongol Khans, including those from Moghulistan (with the assistance of local Dughlats, Dughlat emirs), Uigurstan (later Turpan) and Kashgaria. These leaders warred with each other and the Timurid Empire, Timurids of Transoxiana to the west and the Oirats to the east: the successor Chagatai regime based in Mongolia and China. During the 17th century, the Dzungars established an empire over much of the region.
The Mongolian Dzungars were the collective identity of several Oirat tribes which formed and maintained, one of the last nomadic empires. The Dzungar Khanate covered Dzungaria, extending from the western Great Wall of China to present-day Eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day Northern Kyrgyzstan to Southern Siberia. Most of the region was renamed "Xinjiang" by the Chinese after the fall of the Dzungar Empire, which existed from the early 17th to the mid-18th century.
The sedentary Turkic Muslims of the Tarim Basin were originally ruled by the Chagatai Khanate and the nomadic Buddhist Oirat Mongols in Dzungaria ruled the Dzungar Khanate. The Naqshbandi Sufi Khoja (Turkestan), Khojas, descendants of Muhammad, had replaced the Chagatayid Khans as rulers of the Tarim Basin during the early 17th century. There was a struggle between two Khoja factions: the Afaqi (White Mountain) and the Ishaqi (Black Mountain). The Ishaqi defeated the Afaqi and the Afaq Khoja invited the 5th Dalai Lama (the leader of the Tibetan people, Tibetans) to intervene on his behalf in 1677. The Dalai Lama then called on his Dzungar Buddhist followers in the Dzungar Khanate to act on the invitation. The Dzungar Khanate conquered the Tarim Basin in 1680, setting up the Afaqi Khoja as their puppet ruler. After converting to Islam, the descendants of the previously-Qocho, Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" (Dzungars) built Buddhist monuments in their region.{{cite book, author1=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, author2=Bernard Lewis, author3=Johannes Hendrik Kramers, author4=Charles Pellat, author5=Joseph Schacht, title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJPrAAAAMAAJ, year=1998, publisher=Brill, page=677, access-date=10 July 2015, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=PJPrAAAAMAAJ, archive-date=1 January 2016, url-status=live
Qing dynasty
{{Main, Xinjiang under Qing rule
The Turkic Muslims of the Turfan and Hami, Kumul oases then submitted to the Qing dynasty and asked China to free them from the Dzungars; the Qing accepted their rulers as vassals. They warred against the Dzungars for decades before defeating them; Qing Manchu Eight Banners, Bannermen then conducted the Dzungar genocide, nearly eradicating them and depopulating Dzungaria. The Qing freed the Afaqi Khoja leader Burhan-ud-din and his brother, Khoja Jihan, from Dzungar imprisonment and appointed them to rule the Tarim Basin as Qing vassals. The Khoja brothers reneged on the agreement, declaring themselves independent leaders of the Tarim Basin. The Qing and the Turfan leader Emin Khoja crushed their revolt, and by 1759 China controlled Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin.{{sfnp, Adle, 2003, p=203, loc="By the autumn of 1759, the entire periphery of the Tarim basin had been pacified"
The Manchu people, Manchu Qing dynasty gained control of eastern Xinjiang as a result of a Dzungar–Qing Wars, long struggle with the Dzungars which began during the 17th century. In 1755, with the help of the Oirat noble Amursana, the Qing attacked Yining, Ghulja and captured the Dzungar khan. After Amursana's request to be declared Dzungar khan went unanswered, he led a revolt against the Qing. Qing armies destroyed the remnants of the Dzungar Khanate over the next two years, and many Han Chinese and Hui people, Hui moved into the pacified areas.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=98
The native Dzungar Oirat Mongols suffered greatly from the brutal campaigns and a simultaneous smallpox epidemic. Writer Wei Yuan described the resulting desolation in present-day northern Xinjiang as "an empty plain for several thousand ''li (unit), li'', with no Oirat yurt except those surrendered." It has been estimated that 80 percent of the 600,000 (or more) Dzungars died from a combination of disease and warfare, and recovery took generations.{{sfnp, Tyler, 2004 , 55
} Han and Hui merchants were initially only allowed to trade in the Tarim Basin; their settlement in the Tarim Basin was banned until the 1830 Āfāqī Khoja Holy War, Muhammad Yusuf Khoja invasion, when the Qing rewarded merchants for fighting off Khoja by allowing them to settle in the basin.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
113
} The Uyghur Muslim Sayyid and Naqshbandi Sufi rebel of the Afaqi suborder, Jahangir Khoja was Lingchi, sliced to death (Lingchi) in 1828 by the Manchus for Āfāqī Khoja Holy War#Military expeditions with the support of Khoqand, leading a rebellion against the Qing. According to Robert Montgomery Martin, many Chinese with a variety of occupations were settled in Dzungaria in 1870; in Turkestan (the Tarim Basin), however, only a few Chinese merchants and garrison soldiers were interspersed with the Muslim population.{{sfnp, Martin, 1847 ,
21
} The 1765 Uqturpan County, Ush rebellion by the Uyghurs against the Manchu began after Uyghur women were raped by the servants and son of Manchu official Su-cheng.{{sfnp, Millward , 1998 ,
124
} It was said that "Ush Muslims had long wanted to sleep on [Sucheng and son's] hides and eat their flesh" because of the months-long abuse.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
108
} The Manchu emperor ordered the massacre of the Uyghur rebel town; Qing forces enslaved the Uyghur children and women, and killed the Uyghur men.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
109
} Sexual abuse of Uyghur women by Manchu soldiers and officials triggered deep Uyghur hostility against Manchu rule.{{sfnp, Millward , 1998 , p
206–207
}
Yettishar
{{Main, Yettishar
By the 1860s, Xinjiang had been under Xinjiang under Qing rule, Qing rule for a century. The region was captured in 1759 from the Dzungar Khanate, whose population (the Oirats) became the targets of genocide. Xinjiang was primarily semi-arid or desert and unattractive to non-trading Chinese Han, Han settlers, and others (including the Uyghurs) settled there.
The Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), Dungan Revolt by the Muslim Hui and other Muslims, Muslim ethnic groups was fought in China's Shaanxi, Ningxia and Gansu Provinces of China, provinces and in Xinjiang from 1862 to 1877. The conflict led to a reported 20.77 million deaths due to migration and war, with many refugees dying of starvation.{{failed verification, date=January 2021 Thousands of Muslim refugees from Shaanxi fled to Gansu; some formed battalions in eastern Gansu, intending to reconquer their lands in Shaanxi. While the Hui rebels were preparing to attack Gansu and Shaanxi, Yakub Beg of Yettishar, Yaqub Beg (an Uzbek or Tajiks, Tajik commander of the Kokand Khanate) fled from the khanate in 1865 after losing Tashkent to the Russians. Beg settled in Kashgar, and soon controlled Xinjiang. Although he encouraged trade, built Caravanserai, caravansareis, canals and other irrigation systems, his regime was considered harsh. The Chinese took decisive action against Yettishar; an army under General Zuo Zongtang rapidly approached Kashgaria, reconquering it on 16 May 1877.
After Qing reconquest of Xinjiang, reconquering Xinjiang in the late 1870s from Yaqub Beg, the Qing dynasty established Xinjiang ("new frontier") as a province in 1884{{sfnp, Mesny , 1905 , p=5{{sndmaking it part of China, and dropping the old names of Zhunbu ({{lang, zh-hant, 準部, Dzungar Region) and Huijiang (Muslimland).{{sfnp, Tyler, 2004 , 61
} After Xinjiang became a Chinese province, the Qing government encouraged the Uyghurs to migrate from southern Xinjiang to other areas of the province (such as the region between Qitai and the capital, largely inhabited by Han Chinese, and Ürümqi, Tacheng (Tabarghatai), Yili, Jinghe, Kur Kara Usu, Ruoqiang, Lop Nor and the lower Tarim River.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 ,
151
}
Republic of China
{{see also, History of the Republic of China, Xinjiang Province, Republic of China, First East Turkestan Republic, Second East Turkestan Republic
In 1912, the Qing dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China. Yuan Dahua, the last Qing governor of Xinjiang, fled. One of his subordinates, Yang Zengxin, took control of the province and acceded in name to the Republic of China in March of that year. Balancing mixed ethnic constituencies, Yang controlled Xinjiang until his 1928 assassination after the Northern Expedition of the Kuomintang.
The Kumul Rebellion and others broke out throughout Xinjiang during the early 1930s against Jin Shuren, Yang's successor, involving Uyghurs, other Turkic groups and Hui (Muslim) Chinese. Jin enlisted White movement, White Russians to crush the revolts. In the Kashgar region on 12 November 1933, the short-lived First East Turkestan Republic was self-proclaimed after debate about whether it should be called "East Turkestan" or "Uyghuristan".R. Michael Feener, "Islam in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives", ABC-CLIO, 2004, {{ISBN, 1-57607-516-8{{cite news , title=Uighurs and China's Xinjiang Region , work=Council on Foreign Relations , url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/uighurs-and-chinas-xinjiang-region , url-status=live , access-date=13 October 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913002530/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/uighurs-and-chinas-xinjiang-region , archive-date=13 September 2018 The region claimed by the ETR encompassed the Kashgar Prefecture, Kashgar, Khotan Prefecture, Khotan and Aksu Prefectures in southwestern Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=24 The Chinese Muslim Kuomintang 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) defeated the army of the First East Turkestan Republic in the 1934 Battle of Kashgar (1934), Battle of Kashgar, ending the republic after Chinese Muslims executed its two emirs: Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. The Soviet Union Soviet invasion of Xinjiang, invaded the province; it was brought under the control of northeast Han warlord Sheng Shicai after the 1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937), Xinjiang War. Sheng ruled Xinjiang for the next decade with support from the Soviet Union, many of whose ethnic and security policies he instituted. The Soviet Union maintained a military base in the province and deployed several military and economic advisors. Sheng invited a group of Chinese Communists to Xinjiang (including Mao Zedong's brother, Mao Zemin),{{Cite book , last=Qian , first=Ying , title=Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China , date=2024 , publisher=Columbia University Press , isbn=9780231204477 , location=New York, NY{{Rp, page=111 but executed them all in 1943 in fear of a conspiracy. In 1944, President of the Republic of China, President and Premier of the Republic of China, Premier of China Chiang Kai-shek, informed by the Soviet Union of Shicai's intention to join it, transferred him to Chongqing as the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry the following year. During the Ili Rebellion, the Soviet Union backed Uyghur separatists to form the Second East Turkestan Republic (ETR) in the Ili region while most of Xinjiang remained under Kuomintang control.
People's Republic of China
{{see also, Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China, Migration to Xinjiang The People's Liberation Army Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China, entered Xinjiang in 1949, when Kuomintang commander Tao Zhiyue and government chairman Burhan Shahidi surrendered the province to them. Five ETR leaders who were to negotiate with the Chinese about ETR sovereignty died in an airplane crash that year in the outskirts of Kabansk in the Russian SFSR. The PRC continued the system of settler colonialism and forced assimilation which had defined previous Chinese expansionism in Xinjiang. The PRC autonomous region was established on 1 October 1955, replacing the province; that year (the first modern census in China was taken in 1953), Uyghurs were 73 percent of Xinjiang's total population of 5.11 million.{{sfnp, Bovingdon, 2010, p=199 Although Xinjiang was designated a "Uygur Autonomous Region" since 1954, more than 50 percent of its area is designated autonomous areas for 13 native non-Uyghur groups.{{sfnp, Bovingdon, 2010, pp=43–46 Modern Uyghurs developed ethnogenesis in 1955, when the PRC recognized formerly separately self-identified oasis peoples.{{sfnp, Hopper, Webber, 2009, p=176 Southern Xinjiang is home to most of the Uyghur population, about nine million people, out of a total population of twenty million; fifty-five percent of Xinjiang's Han population, mainly urban, live in the north.{{sfnp, Guo , Guo , 2007 ,220
}{{sfnp, Guo , Hickey , 2009 ,
164
} This created an economic imbalance, since the northern Junghar basin (Dzungaria) is more developed than the south.{{sfnp, Howell , 2009 ,
37
{Dead link, date=April 2024 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes Land Reform Movement (China), Land reform and Collective farming, collectivization occurred in Uyghur agricultural areas at the same general pace as in most of China.{{Cite book , last=Harrell , first=Stevan , title=An Ecological History of Modern China , publisher=University of Washington Press , year=2023 , isbn=978-0-295-75171-9 , location=Seattle{{Rp, page=134 Hunger in Xinjiang was not as great as elsewhere in China during the Great Leap Forward and a million Han Chinese fleeing famine resettled in Xinjiang.{{Rp, page=134 In 1980, China allowed the United States to establish electronic listening stations in Xinjiang so the United States could monitor Soviet rocket launches in central Asia in exchange for the United States authorizing the sale of Dual-use technology, dual-use civilian and military technology and nonlethal military equipment to China.{{Cite book , last=Zhao , first=Suisheng , title=The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy , date=2022 , publisher=Stanford University Press , isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2 , page=54, doi=10.1515/9781503634152 Since Chinese economic reform since the late 1970s has exacerbated uneven regional development, more Uyghurs have migrated to Xinjiang's cities and some Han have migrated to Xinjiang for economic advancement. Paramount leader, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping made a nine-day visit to Xinjiang in 1981 and described the region as "unsteady".{{cite book, url=https://archive.org/details/forbiddendoor00terz, title=The Forbidden Door, date=1985, publisher=Asia 2000 Ltd, author=Tiziano Terzani, via=Internet Archive, pag
224
isbn=978-962-7160-01-4
Administrative divisions
{{Main list, List of administrative divisions of Xinjiang, List of township-level divisions of Xinjiang Xinjiang is divided into thirteen Administrative divisions of China#Prefectural level, prefecture-level divisions: four Prefecture-level city, prefecture-level cities, six Prefectures of China, prefectures and five autonomous prefectures (including the sub-provincial autonomous prefecture of Ili, which in turn has two of the seven prefectures within its jurisdiction) for Mongols, Mongol, Kazakhs, Kazakh, Kyrgyz people, Kyrgyz and Hui minorities. These are then divided into 13 districts, 29 county-level cities, 60 counties and 6 autonomous counties. Twelve of the county-level cities do not belong to any prefecture and are ''de facto'' administered by the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC). Sub-level divisions of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is shown in the adjacent picture and described in the table below: {, class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto 0 auto; font-size:90%; text-align: center;" ! colspan="9" , Administrative divisions of Xinjiang , - , colspan="9" style="font-size: larger;" ,
{{Image label begin, image=Administrative Division Xinjiang (PRC claimed).svg, width=900, link=, font-size=85%
{{Image label, x=900, y=410, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Ürümqi
{{Image label, x=815, y=240, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Karamay, K
{{Image label, x=810, y=250, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Karamay, a
{{Image label, x=805, y=260, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Karamay, r
{{Image label, x=800, y=270, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Karamay, a
{{Image label, x=790, y=280, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Karamay, m
{{Image label, x=790, y=290, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Karamay, a
{{Image label, x=790, y=300, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Karamay, y
{{Image label, x=985, y=485, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Turpan
{{Image label, x=1185, y=450, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Hami
{{Image label, x=960, y=355, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Changji
Hui AP {{Image label, x=845, y=325, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, (Changji) {{Image label, x=550, y=295, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala
Mongol AP {{Image label, x=840, y=670, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bayingolin
Mongol AP {{Image label, x=570, y=540, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Aksu Prefecture, Aksu
Prefecture {{Image label, x=280, y=630, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture, Kizilsu
Kyrgyz AP {{Image label, x=380, y=700, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Kashgar Prefecture, Kashgar
Prefecture {{Image label, x=560, y=800, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Hotan Prefecture, Hotan
Prefecture {{Image label, x=605, y=410, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili
Kazakh AP {{Image label, x=680, y=240, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Tacheng Prefecture, Tacheng
Prefecture {{Image label, x=930, y=180, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Altay Prefecture, Altay
Prefecture {{Image label, x=830, y=360, scale=900/1500, text=Shihezi, {{large, ① {{Image label, x=600, y=605, scale=900/1500, text=Aral, Xinjiang, {{large, ② {{Image label, x=500, y=650, scale=900/1500, text=Tumxuk, {{large, ③ {{Image label, x=905, y=350, scale=900/1500, text=Wujiaqu, {{large, ④ {{Image label, x=930, y=150, scale=900/1500, text=Beitun, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑤ {{Image label, x=810, y=510, scale=900/1500, text=Tiemenguan City, {{large, ⑥ {{Image label, x=650, y=325, scale=900/1500, text=Shuanghe, {{large, ⑦ {{Image label, x=570, y=385, scale=900/1500, text=Kokdala, {{large, ⑧ {{Image label, x=510, y=810, scale=900/1500, text=Kunyu, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑨ {{Image label, x=775, y=325, scale=900/1500, text=Huyanghe, {{large, ⑩ {{Image label, x=1210, y=470, scale=900/1500, text=Xinxing, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑪ {{Image label, x=680, y=190, scale=900/1500, text=Baiyang, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑫ {{Image label, x=1155, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Shihezi, {{large, ① {{small, Shihezi {{Image label, x=110, y=580, scale=900/1500, text=Aral, Xinjiang, {{large, ② {{small, Aral {{Image label, x=45, y=780, scale=900/1500, text=Tumxuk, {{large, ③ {{small, Tumxuk {{Image label, x=1355, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Wujiaqu, {{large, ④ {{small, Wujiaqu {{Image label, x=260, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Beitun, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑤ {{small, Beitun {{Image label, x=1355, y=770, scale=900/1500, text=Tiemenguan City, {{large, ⑥ {{small, Tiemenguan {{Image label, x=260, y=380, scale=900/1500, text=Shuanghe, {{large, ⑦ {{small, Shuanghe {{Image label, x=45, y=380, scale=900/1500, text=Kokdala, {{large, ⑧ {{small, Kokdala {{Image label, x=1235, y=980, scale=900/1500, text=Kunyu, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑨ {{small, Kunyu {{Image label, x=55, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Huyanghe, {{large, ⑩ {{small, Huyanghe {{Image label, x=1365, y=380, scale=900/1500, text=Xinxing, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑪ {{small, Xinxing {{Image label, x=465, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Baiyang, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑫ {{small, Baiyang {{Image label, x=50, y=860, scale=900/1500, text=█ {{small, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, XPCC / Bingtuan administered
county-level divisions {{Image label, x=50, y=910, scale=900/1500, text=█ {{small, Subordinate to Ili Kazakh A.P. {{Image label, x=50, y=940, scale=900/1500, text=☐ {{small, Disputed areas claimed by India
and administered by China
(see Sino-Indian border dispute) {{Image label end
, -
!! scope="col" rowspan="2" , Administrative division codes of the People's Republic of China, Division code
!! scope="col" rowspan="2" , Division
!! scope="col" rowspan="2" , Area in km2{{in lang, zh{{cite book , language=zh-hans , author=Shenzhen Bureau of Statistics , publisher=:zh:中国统计出版社, China Statistics Print , script-title=zh:深圳统计年鉴2014 , trans-title=Shenzhen Statistical Yearbook 2014 , url=http://www.sztj.gov.cn/nj2014/indexce.htm , access-date=29 May 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512184740/http://www.sztj.gov.cn/nj2014/indexce.htm , archive-date=12 May 2015
!! scope="col" rowspan="2" , Population 2020
!! scope="col" rowspan="2" , Seat
!! scope="col" colspan="4" , Divisions
, -
!! scope="col" width="45" , District (China), Districts
!! scope="col" width="45" , Counties of China, Counties
!! scope="col" width="45" , Autonomous county, Aut. counties
!! scope="col" width="45" , County-level city, CL cities
, - style="font-weight: bold;"
! 650000 !!Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
, 1,664,900.00 , , 25,852,345 , , Ürümqi city , , 13 , , 60 , , 6 , , 29
, -
! 650100 !! Ürümqi city
, 13,787.90 , , 4,054,369 , , Tianshan District , , 7 , , 1 , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey",
, -
! 650200 !! Karamay city
, 8,654.08 , , 490,348 , , Karamay District , , 4 , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey",
, -
! 650400 !! Turpan city
, 67,562.91 , , 693,988 , , Gaochang District , , 1 , , 2 , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey",
, -
! 650500 !! Hami city
, 142,094.88 , , 673,383 , , Yizhou District, Hami, Yizhou District , , 1 , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1 , , 1
, -
! 652300 !! Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture
, 73,139.75 , , 1,613,585 , , Changji city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 4 , , 1 , , 2
, -
! 652700 !! Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture
, 24,934.33 , , 488,198 , , Bole, Xinjiang, Bole city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 2 , , bgcolor="grey", , , 2
, -
! 652800 !! Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture
, 470,954.25 , , 1,613,979 , , Korla city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 7 , , 1 , , 1
, -
! 652900 !! Aksu Prefecture
, 127,144.91 , , 2,714,422 , , Aksu City, Aksu city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 7 , , bgcolor="grey", , , 2
, -
! 653000 !! Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture
, 72,468.08 , , 622,222 , , Artux city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 3 , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, -
! 653100 !! Kashgar Prefecture
, 137,578.51 , , 4,496,377 , , Kashgar, Kashi city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 10 , , 1 , , 1
, -
! 653200 !! Hotan Prefecture
, 249,146.59 , , 2,504,718 , , Hotan city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 7 , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="#98fb98"
! 654000 !! Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture
, 56,381.53 * , , 2,848,393 * , , Yining city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 7 * , , 1 * , , 3 *
, -
! 654200 !! Tacheng Prefecture*
, 94,698.18 , , 1,138,638 , , Tacheng city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 4 , , 1 , , 3
, -
! 654300 !! Altay Prefecture*
, 117,699.01 , , 668,587 , , Altay City, Altay city , , bgcolor="grey", , , 6 , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - style = "background: lightgrey; height: 2pt;"
, colspan = "14" ,
, - bgcolor="#98fb98"
! 659000 !! Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
, 13,055.57 , , 1,573,931 , , ''Ürümqi city'' , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 12
, - style = "background: lightgrey; height: 2pt;"
, colspan = "14" ,
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659001 !! Shihezi city (8th Division)
, 456.84 , , 498,587 , , Hongshan Subdistrict, Shihezi, ''Hongshan Subdistrict'', , bgcolor="grey" , , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659002 !! Aral, Xinjiang, Aral city (1st Division)
, 5,266.00 , , 328,241 , , ''Jinyinchuan Road Subdistrict'', , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659003 !! Tumxuk city (3rd Division)
, 2,003.00 , , 263,245 , , ''Jinxiu Subdistrict'' , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659004 !! Wujiaqu city (6th Division)
, 742.00 , , 141,065 , , Renmin Road Subdistrict, Wujiaqu, ''Renmin Road Subdistrict'' , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659005 !! Beitun, Xinjiang, Beitun city (10th Division)
, 910.50 , , 20,414 , , ''Beitun Town, Beitun Town'' (Altay), , bgcolor="grey" , , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659006 !! Tiemenguan City, Tiemenguan city (2nd Division)
, 590.27 , , 104,746 , , Xingjiang Road, 29th Regiment, , bgcolor="grey" , , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659007 !! Shuanghe city (5th Division)
, 742.18 , , 54,731 , , Hongxing No.2 Road, 89th Regiment , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659008 !! Kokdala city (4th Division)
, 979.71 , , 69,524 , , Xinfu Road, 66th Regiment , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659009 !! Kunyu, Xinjiang, Kunyu city (14th Division)
, 687.13 , , 63,487 , , ''Yuyuan Town, Yuyuan Town'' , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659010 !! Huyanghe city (7th Division)
, 677.94 , , 29,891 , , ''Gongqing Town, Gongqing town'' , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659011 !! Xinxing, Xinjiang, Xinxing city (13th Division)
, , , , , ''Huangtian Town, Huangtian Town'' , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, - bgcolor="lightyellow"
! 659012 !! Baiyang, Xinjiang, Baiyang city (9th Division)
, , , , , ''163rd Regiment of the 9th Division'' , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , bgcolor="grey", , , 1
, -
, colspan = "14" , {{legend, #98FB98, Sub-provincial divisions in the People's Republic of China, Sub-provincial prefecture , border = 1px solid #AAAAAA {{legend, lightyellow, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps cities , border = 1px solid #AAAAAA
Hui AP {{Image label, x=845, y=325, scale=900/1500, text={{small, {{small, Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, (Changji) {{Image label, x=550, y=295, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala
Mongol AP {{Image label, x=840, y=670, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bayingolin
Mongol AP {{Image label, x=570, y=540, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Aksu Prefecture, Aksu
Prefecture {{Image label, x=280, y=630, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture, Kizilsu
Kyrgyz AP {{Image label, x=380, y=700, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Kashgar Prefecture, Kashgar
Prefecture {{Image label, x=560, y=800, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Hotan Prefecture, Hotan
Prefecture {{Image label, x=605, y=410, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili
Kazakh AP {{Image label, x=680, y=240, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Tacheng Prefecture, Tacheng
Prefecture {{Image label, x=930, y=180, scale=900/1500, text={{small, Altay Prefecture, Altay
Prefecture {{Image label, x=830, y=360, scale=900/1500, text=Shihezi, {{large, ① {{Image label, x=600, y=605, scale=900/1500, text=Aral, Xinjiang, {{large, ② {{Image label, x=500, y=650, scale=900/1500, text=Tumxuk, {{large, ③ {{Image label, x=905, y=350, scale=900/1500, text=Wujiaqu, {{large, ④ {{Image label, x=930, y=150, scale=900/1500, text=Beitun, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑤ {{Image label, x=810, y=510, scale=900/1500, text=Tiemenguan City, {{large, ⑥ {{Image label, x=650, y=325, scale=900/1500, text=Shuanghe, {{large, ⑦ {{Image label, x=570, y=385, scale=900/1500, text=Kokdala, {{large, ⑧ {{Image label, x=510, y=810, scale=900/1500, text=Kunyu, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑨ {{Image label, x=775, y=325, scale=900/1500, text=Huyanghe, {{large, ⑩ {{Image label, x=1210, y=470, scale=900/1500, text=Xinxing, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑪ {{Image label, x=680, y=190, scale=900/1500, text=Baiyang, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑫ {{Image label, x=1155, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Shihezi, {{large, ① {{small, Shihezi {{Image label, x=110, y=580, scale=900/1500, text=Aral, Xinjiang, {{large, ② {{small, Aral {{Image label, x=45, y=780, scale=900/1500, text=Tumxuk, {{large, ③ {{small, Tumxuk {{Image label, x=1355, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Wujiaqu, {{large, ④ {{small, Wujiaqu {{Image label, x=260, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Beitun, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑤ {{small, Beitun {{Image label, x=1355, y=770, scale=900/1500, text=Tiemenguan City, {{large, ⑥ {{small, Tiemenguan {{Image label, x=260, y=380, scale=900/1500, text=Shuanghe, {{large, ⑦ {{small, Shuanghe {{Image label, x=45, y=380, scale=900/1500, text=Kokdala, {{large, ⑧ {{small, Kokdala {{Image label, x=1235, y=980, scale=900/1500, text=Kunyu, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑨ {{small, Kunyu {{Image label, x=55, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Huyanghe, {{large, ⑩ {{small, Huyanghe {{Image label, x=1365, y=380, scale=900/1500, text=Xinxing, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑪ {{small, Xinxing {{Image label, x=465, y=180, scale=900/1500, text=Baiyang, Xinjiang, {{large, ⑫ {{small, Baiyang {{Image label, x=50, y=860, scale=900/1500, text=█ {{small, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, XPCC / Bingtuan administered
county-level divisions {{Image label, x=50, y=910, scale=900/1500, text=█ {{small, Subordinate to Ili Kazakh A.P. {{Image label, x=50, y=940, scale=900/1500, text=☐ {{small, Disputed areas claimed by India
and administered by China
(see Sino-Indian border dispute) {{Image label end
Urban areas
{, class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size:90%;" ! colspan=5 , Population by urban areas of prefecture & county cities , - ! # !! Cities !! style="background-color: #aaaaff;", 2020 Urban area{{cite book , author=国务院人口普查办公室、国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司编 , date=2022 , script-title=zh:中国2020年人口普查分县资料 , location=Beijing , publisher=:zh:中国统计出版社, China Statistics Print , isbn=978-7-5037-9772-9 !! style="background-color: #aaaaff;", 2010 Urban area{{cite book , author=国务院人口普查办公室、国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司编 , date=2012 , script-title=zh:中国2010年人口普查分县资料 , location=Beijing , publisher=:zh:中国统计出版社, China Statistics Print , isbn=978-7-5037-6659-6 !! style="background-color: #ffaaaa;" , 2020 City proper , - , 1, , Ürümqi, , 3,864,136, , 2,853,398, , 4,054,369 , - , 2, , Yining, , 654,726, , 368,813, , {{small, ''part of Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili Prefecture'' , - , 3, , Korla, , 490,961, , 425,182, , {{small, ''part of Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bayingolin Prefecture'' , - , 4, , Karamay, , 481,249, , 353,299, , 490,348 , - , 5, , Aksu City, Aksu, , 470,601, , 284,872, , {{small, ''part of Aksu Prefecture'' , - , 6, , Shihezi, , 461,663, , 313,768, , 498,587 , - , 7, , Changji, , 451,234, , 303,938, , {{small, ''part of Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Changji Prefecture'' , - , 8, , Hami, , 426,072, , 310,500{{efn-lr, name=Hami, Hami Prefecture is currently known as Hami PLC after 2010 census; Hami CLC is currently known as Yizhou District, Hami, Yizhou after 2010 census., , 673,383 , - , 9, , Kashgar, Kashi, , 392,730, , 310,448, , {{small, ''part of Kashgar Prefecture, Kashi Prefecture'' , - , 10, , Hotan, , 293,056, , 119,804, , {{small, ''part of Hotan Prefecture'' , - , 11, , Kuqa, Xinjiang, Kuqa, , 262,771, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Kuqa, Kuqa County is currently known as Kuqa CLC after 2010 census., , {{small, ''part of Aksu Prefecture'' , - , 12, , Aral, Xinjiang, Aral, , 239,647, , 65,175, , 328,241 , - , 13, , Kuytun, , 224,471, , 20,805, , {{small, ''part of Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili Prefecture'' , - , 14, , Bole, Xinjiang, Bole, , 177,536, , 120,138, , {{small, ''part of Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala Prefecture'' , - , 15, , Wusu, Usu, , 156,437, , 131,661, , {{small, ''part of Tacheng Prefecture'' , - bgcolor="lightyellow" , (16), , Shawan, Xinjiang, Shawan, , 150,317{{efn-lr, name=Shawan, Shawan County is currently known as Shawan CLC after 2020 census., , bgcolor="lightgrey", , , {{small, ''part of Tacheng Prefecture'' , - , 17, , Altay City, Altay, , 147,301, , 112,711, , {{small, ''part of Altay Prefecture'' , - , 18, , Turpan, , 143,456, , 89,719{{efn-lr, name=Turpan, Turpan Prefecture is currently known as Turpan PLC after 2010 census; Turpan CLC is currently known as Gaochang District, Gaochang after 2010 census., , 693,988 , - , 19, , Tumxuk, , 128,056, , 34,808, , 263,245 , - , 20, , Fukang, , 125,080, , 67,598, , {{small, ''part of Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Changji Prefecture'' , - , 21, , Tacheng, , 122,447, , 75,122, , {{small, ''part of Tacheng Prefecture'' , - , 22, , Wujiaqu, , 118,893, , 75,088, , 141,065 , - , 23, , Artux, , 105,855, , 58,427, , {{small, ''part of Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture, Kizilsu Prefecture'' , - bgcolor="lightyellow" , (24), , Baiyang, Xinjiang, Baiyang, , 85,655{{efn-lr, name=Baiyang, Baiyang CLC was established from parts of Tacheng, Tachang CLC after 2020 census., , bgcolor="lightgrey", , , 85,655 , - , 25, , Tiemenguan City, Tiemenguan, , 77,969, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Tiemenguan, Tiemenguan CLC was established from parts of Korla, Korla CLC after 2010 census., , 104,746 , - , 26, , Khorgas, Korgas, , 44,701, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Korgas, Korgas CLC was established from parts of Huocheng County after 2010 census., , {{small, ''part of Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili Prefecture'' , - bgcolor="lightyellow" , (27), , Xinxing, Xinjiang, Xinxing, , 44,700{{efn-lr, name=Xinxing, Xinxing CLC was established from parts of Yizhou District, Hami, Yizhou District after 2020 census., , bgcolor="lightgrey", , , 44,700 , - , 28, , Shuanghe, , 43,263, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Shuanghe, Shuanghe CLC was established from parts of Bole, Xinjiang, Bole CLC after 2010 census., , 54,731 , - , 29, , Kokdala, , 39,257, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Kokdala, Kokdala CLC was established from parts of Huocheng County after 2010 census., , 69,524 , - , 30, , Kunyu, Xinjiang, Kunyu, , 32,591, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Kunyu, Kunyu CLC was established from parts of Hotan County, Pishan County, Karakax County, Moyu County, & Qira County after 2010 census., , 63,487 , - , 32, , Huyanghe, , 24,769, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Huyanghe, Huyanghe CLC was established from parts of Wusu, Usu CLC after 2010 census., , 29,891 , - , 32, , Beitun, Xinjiang, Beitun, , 13,874, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Beitun, Beitun CLC was established from parts of Altay City, Altay CLC after 2010 census., , 20,414 , - , 33, , Alashankou, , 11,097, , bgcolor="lightgrey", {{efn-lr, name=Alashankou, Alashankou CLC was established from parts of Bole, Xinjiang, Bole CLC & Jinghe County after 2010 census., , , {{small, ''part of Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala Prefecture'' {{notelist-lrGeography and geology
Xinjiang is the largest Administrative divisions of China, political subdivision of China, accounting for more than one sixth of China's total territory and a quarter of its boundary length. Xinjiang is mostly covered with uninhabitable deserts and dry grasslands, with dotted oases conducive to habitation accounting for 9.7 percent of Xinjiang's total area by 2015 at the foot of Tian Shan, Kunlun Mountains and Altai Mountains, respectively.
Mountain systems and basins
{{Unreferenced section, date=July 2019 Xinjiang is split by the Tian Shan mountain range ({{ug-textonly, تەڭرى تاغ, Tengri Tagh, Тәңри Тағ), which divides it into two large basins: the Dzungarian Basin in the north and the Tarim Basin in the south. A small V-shaped wedge between these two major basins, limited by the Tian Shan's main range in the south and the Borohoro Mountains in the north, is the basin of the Ili River, which flows into Kazakhstan's Lake Balkhash; an even smaller wedge farther north is the Emin Valley.
Other major mountain ranges of Xinjiang include the Pamir Mountains and Karakoram in the southwest, the Kunlun Mountains in the south (along the border with Tibet) and the Altai Mountains in the northeast (shared with Mongolia). The region's highest point is the mountain K2, an eight-thousander located {{convert, 8611, m, ft above sea level in the Karakoram Mountains on the border with Pakistan.
Much of the Tarim Basin is dominated by the Taklamakan Desert. North of it is the Turpan Depression, which contains the lowest point in Xinjiang and in the entire PRC, at {{convert, 155, m, ft below sea level.
The Dzungarian Basin is slightly cooler, and receives somewhat more precipitation, than the Tarim Basin. Nonetheless, it, too, has a large Gurbantünggüt Desert (also known as Dzoosotoyn Elisen) in its center.
The Tian Shan mountain range marks the Xinjiang-Kyrgyzstan border at the Torugart Pass (3752 m). The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass.
Mountain passes
From south to north, the mountain passes bordering Xinjiang are: {, class="wikitable collapsible collapsed " style="font-size:95%;" ! colspan="5" , Mountain passes bordering Xinjiang , - , {, class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%; ! width=125pt, 山口 ! width=125pt, Mountain Pass ! width=200pt, Coordinate ! Elev. ! Appendix , - , :zh:喀喇昆仑山口, 喀喇昆仑山口 , :en:Karakoram Pass, Karakoram Pass , {{coord, 35.513333, 77.823056 , 5540m , {{flagdeco, IND-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :en:Indira Col, 图尔吉斯坦拉山口 , :en:Indira Col, Turkistan La Pass , {{coord, 35.656667, 76.860556 , , {{flagdeco, IND-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Windy Gap (bergspass i Kina), Windy Gap , :sv: Windy Gap (bergspass i Kina), Windy Gap , {{coord, 35.87318, 76.57692 , 6111m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:木斯塔山口, 木斯塔山口 , :en:Mustagh Pass, Mustagh Pass , {{coord, 35.840000, 76.250000 , 5422m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Sarpo Laggo Pass, Sarpo Laggo Pass , :sv: Sarpo Laggo Pass, Sarpo Laggo Pass , {{coord, 35.8234, 76.16249 , 6013m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , West Muztagh pass , West Muztagh pass , {{coord, 35.8532, 76.1424 , , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:红其拉甫口岸, 红其拉甫口岸 , :en:Khunjerab Pass, Khunjerab Pass , {{coord, 36.850000, 75.427778 , 4693m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , Parpik Pass , Parpik Pass , {{coord, 36.95, 75.35 , 5467m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Mutsjliga Pass, Mutsjliga Pass , :sv: Mutsjliga Pass, Mutsjliga Pass , {{coord, 36.97374, 75.2973 , 5314m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:明铁盖达坂, 明铁盖达坂 , :en:Mintaka Pass, Mintaka Pass , {{coord, 37.0039, 74.8511 , 4709m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:基里克达坂, 基里克达坂 , :en:Kilik Pass, Kilik Pass , {{coord, 37.0792, 74.6722 , 4827m , {{flagdeco, PAK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:瓦根基达坂, 瓦根基达坂 , :en:Wakhjir Pass, Wakhjir Pass , {{coord, 37.098, 74.4848 , 4837 m , {{flagdeco, AFG-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , Kara Jilga Pass , Kara Jilga Pass , {{coord, 37.2545, 74.6147 , 5386m , {{flagdeco, AFG-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , 麦曼约里达坂 , Mihman Yoli Pass , {{coord, 37.28395, 74.7328 , 4937m , {{flagdeco, AFG-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:托克满苏达坂, 托克满苏达坂 , :en:Tegermansu Pass, Tegermansu Pass , {{coord, 37.2236, 74.8744 , 5427m , {{flagdeco, AFG-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , 克克敖吊克达坂别伊克山口
:zh:排依克山口, 排依克山口 , :en:Beyik Pass, Beyik Pass , {{coord, 37.3, 75.0 , 4742m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:纳兹塔什山口, 纳兹塔什山口
奈扎塔什山隘 , :en:Nezatash Pass, Nezatash Pass , {{coord, 37.58944, 74.93611 , 4476m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Agachak, Agachak Pass , :sv: Aghbai Agachak, Agachak Pass , {{coord, 37.82115, 74.94492 , 5127m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:卡拉苏口岸, 卡拉苏口岸
:zh:阔勒买口岸, 阔勒买口岸 , :en:Kulma Pass, Kulma Pass , {{coord, 38.1498, 74.8038 , 4362m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Saritosh, Saritosh Pass , :sv: Aghbai Saritosh, Saritosh Pass , {{coord, 38.27694, 74.80111 , 4538m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Qaratokhterak, Qaratokhterak Pass , :sv: Aghbai Qaratokhterak, Qaratokhterak Pass , {{coord, 38.42833, 74.86722 , 4877m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Aromiti, Aromiti Pass , :sv: Aghbai Aromiti, Aromiti Pass , {{coord, 38.62833, 74.48472 , 4703m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Budabel, Budabel Pass , :sv: Aghbai Budabel, Budabel Pass , {{coord, 38.57556, 74.07222 , 4251m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kiyaz-Ashu, Kiyaz-Ashu , :sv: Pereval Kiyaz-Ashu, Kiyaz-Ashu , {{coord, 38.53333, 74.0 , 4479m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:乌孜别里山口, 乌孜别里山口 , :de: Uzbel-Pass, Uzbel-Pass , {{coord, 38.653806, 73.8023917 , 5540m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Qarazoq, Qarazoq Pass , :sv: Aghbai Qarazoq, Qarazoq Pass , {{coord, 38.85, 73.71194 , 5217m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Aghbai Uch-Bel, Uch-Bel Pass , :sv: Aghbai Uch-Bel, Uch-Bel Pass , {{coord, 37.82115, 74.94492 , 5127m , {{flagdeco, TJK-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Togochar, Togochar Pass , :sv: Pereval Togochar, Togochar Pass , {{coord, 39.56447, 73.91435 , 4361m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Karachaychaty Pass , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Karachaychaty Pass , {{coord, 39.59439, 73.92407 , 4284m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , 斯姆哈纳
:zh:伊尔克什坦口岸, 伊尔克什坦口岸 , :en:Erkeshtam, Erkeshtam , {{coord, 39.7172, 73.9735 , 3005m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Kashetek Pass , :sv: Pereval Karachaychaty, Kashetek Pass , {{coord, 39.72847, 73.91437 , 3120m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Bezymyannyy, Bezymyannyy Pass , :sv: Pereval Bezymyannyy, Bezymyannyy Pass , {{coord, 39.74686, 73.89173 , 3306m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tupik, Tupik Pass , :sv: Pereval Tupik, Tupik Pass , {{coord, 39.74583, 73.88416 , 3299m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Vorota (bergspass i Kina), Vorota Pass , :sv: Pereval Vorota (bergspass i Kina), Vorota Pass , {{coord, 39.75665, 73.86167 , 3604m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Il'tyk, Il'tyk Pass , :sv: Pereval Il'tyk, Il'tyk Pass , {{coord, 39.7647, 73.8388 , 3836m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kara-Bel' (bergspass i Kina), Kara-Bel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Kara-Bel' (bergspass i Kina), Kara-Bel' Pass , {{coord, 39.8652, 73.89535 , 3863m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Ityk, Ityk Pass , :sv: Pereval Ityk, Ityk Pass , {{coord, 39.9114, 73.91068 , 4133m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Dungurama, Dungurama Pass , :sv: Pereval Dungurama, Dungurama Pass , {{coord, 40.01417, 73.96673 , 4067m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karachalsu, Karachalsu Pass , :sv: Pereval Karachalsu, Karachalsu Pass , {{coord, 40.04483, 73.97866 , 4201m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Muzbel' (bergspass i Kina), Muzbel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Muzbel' (bergspass i Kina), Muzbel' Pass , {{coord, 40.08405, 74.01892 , 4507m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Achiktash, Achiktash Pass , :sv: Pereval Achiktash, Achiktash Pass , {{coord, 40.0807, 74.0658 , 4191m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kyz-Dar, Kyz-Dar Pass , :sv: Pereval Kyz-Dar, Kyz-Dar Pass , {{coord, 40.10652, 74.11892 , 4246m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kurumdu, Kurumdu Pass , :sv: Pereval Kurumdu, Kurumdu Pass , {{coord, 40.11038, 74.1286 , 4369m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tart-Kul', Tart-Kul' Pass , :sv: Pereval Tart-Kul', Tart-Kul' Pass , {{coord, 40.1134 , 74.2698 , 3786m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Shuralu-Davan, Shuralu-Davan Pass , :sv: Pereval Shuralu-Davan, Shuralu-Davan Pass , {{coord, 40.26928, 74.58181 , 3875m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tata, Tata Pass , :sv: Pereval Tata, Tata Pass , {{coord, 40.1359, 74.4161 , 4036m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Sulyuktur, Sulyuktur Pass , :sv: Pereval Sulyuktur, Sulyuktur Pass , {{coord, 40.08974, 74.09467 , 4086m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Talgyy, Talgyy Pass , :sv: Pereval Talgyy, Talgyy Pass , {{coord, 40.21973, 74.5368 , 3672m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kalmak-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Kalmak-Ashu Pass , :sv: Pereval Kalmak-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Kalmak-Ashu Pass , {{coord, 40.28128, 74.61626 , 3581m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tuz-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Tuz-Ashu Pass , :sv: Pereval Tuz-Ashu (bergspass i Kina), Tuz-Ashu Pass , {{coord, 40.27238, 74.6524 , 3625m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Dzhetimashu, Dzhetimashu Pass , :sv: Pereval Dzhetimashu, Dzhetimashu Pass , {{coord, 40.42097, 74.81503 , 3838m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , 苏约克山口 , :sv: Pereval Borgun, Borgun Pass , {{coord, 40.46778, 74.81406 , 3945m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:吐尔尕特山口, 吐尔尕特山口 , :en:Torugart Pass, Torugart Pass , {{coord, 40.5517, 75.3939 , 3752m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Uselek, Uselek Pass , :sv: Pereval Uselek, Uselek Pass , {{coord, 40.63374, 75.5207 , 3638m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Chokolay, Chokolay Pass , :sv: Pereval Chokolay, Chokolay Pass , {{coord, 40.59985, 75.62223 , 3841m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Saryiymek, Saryiymek Pass , :sv: Pereval Saryiymek, Saryiymek Pass , {{coord, 40.47055, 75.72222 , 3820m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Ortosu, Ortosu Pass , :sv: Pereval Ortosu, Ortosu Pass , {{coord, 40.3261, 75.82059 , 3903m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Terekty, Terekty Pass , :sv: Pereval Terekty, Terekty Pass , {{coord, 40.30978, 75.85505 , 3908m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kurpe-Bel', Kurpe-Bel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Kurpe-Bel', Kurpe-Bel' Pass , {{coord, 40.37611, 75.96578 , 3667m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Buzaygyr, Buzaygyr Pass , :sv: Pereval Buzaygyr, Buzaygyr Pass , {{coord, 40.36648, 76.00256 , 3783m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Khodzhent, Khodzhent Pass , :sv: Pereval Khodzhent, Khodzhent Pass , {{coord, 40.41093, 76.282 , 3955m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Yerteke, Yerteke Pass , :sv: Pereval Yerteke, Yerteke Pass , {{coord, 40.34612, 76.33113 , 3780m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tuyukkhodzhent, Tuyukkhodzhent Pass , :sv: Pereval Tuyukkhodzhent, Tuyukkhodzhent Pass , {{coord, 40.38185, 76.36949 , 3780m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Kurumduk, Kurumduk Pass , :sv: Pereval Kurumduk, Kurumduk Pass , {{coord, 40.41196, 76.45904 , 3822m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Pervyy, Karabel' Pervyy Pass , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Pervyy, Karabel' Pervyy Pass , {{coord, 40.42914, 76.50312 , 4091m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Vtoroy, Karabel' Vtoroy Pass , :sv: Pereval Karabel' Vtoroy, Karabel' Vtoroy Pass , {{coord, 40.47805, 76.53704 , 4083m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Aksaybel', Aksaybel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Aksaybel', Aksaybel' Pass , {{coord, 40.56114, 76.56965 , 4186m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Tuyukbel', Tuyukbel' Pass , :sv: Pereval Tuyukbel', Tuyukbel' Pass , {{coord, 40.64156, 76.6497 , 4091m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:别迭里山口, 别迭里山口 , :en:Bedel Pass, Bedel Pass , {{coord, 41.4114, 78.4131 , 4284m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Chonteren, Chonteren Pass , :sv: Pereval Chonteren, Chonteren Pass , {{coord, 42.04934, 80.21078 , 5331m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :sv: Pereval Bysokiy, Bysokiy Pass , :sv: Pereval Bysokiy, Bysokiy Pass , {{coord, 42.07022, 80.21003 , 5435m , {{flagdeco, KGZ-{{flagdeco, PRC , - , :zh:阿拉山口市, 阿拉山口市 , :en:Alashankou, Alashankou , {{coord, 45.2, 82.6 , 291m , {{flagdeco, KAZ-{{flagdeco, PRC Border
Geology
Xinjiang is geologically young. Collision of the Indian and the Eurasian plates formed the Tian Shan, Kunlun Shan, and Pamir mountain ranges; said tectonics render it a very active earthquake zone. Older geological formations are located in the far north, where Kazakhstania is geologically part of Kazakhstan, and in the east, where is part of the North China Craton.{{citation needed, date=April 2020Center of the continent
Xinjiang has within its borders, in the Gurbantünggüt Desert, the location in Eurasia that is furthest from the sea in any direction (a continental pole of inaccessibility): {{coord, 46, 16.8, N, 86, 40.2, E, type:landmark, name=Eurasian pole of inaccessibility. It is at least {{convert, 1645, mi, km, abbr=on, order=flip (straight-line distance) from any coastline. In 1992, local geographers determined another point within Xinjiang{{spaced ndash{{coord, 43, 40, 52, N, 87, 19, 52, E in the southwestern suburbs of Ürümqi, Ürümqi County{{spaced ndashto be the "center point of Asia". A Geographical Center of Asian Continent, monument to this effect was then erected there and the site has become a local tourist attraction.Rivers and lakes
Having hot summer and low precipitation, most of Xinjiang is endorheic. Its rivers either disappear in the desert, or terminate in salt lakes (within Xinjiang itself, or in neighboring Kazakhstan), instead of running towards an ocean. The northernmost part of the region, with the Irtysh River rising in the Altai Mountains, that flows (via Kazakhstan and Russia) toward the Arctic Ocean, is the only exception. But even so, a significant part of the Irtysh's waters were artificially diverted via the Irtysh–Karamay–Ürümqi Canal to the drier regions of southern Dzungarian Basin.
Elsewhere, most of Xinjiang's rivers are comparatively short streams fed by the snows of the several ranges of the Tian Shan. Once they enter the populated areas in the mountains' foothills, their waters are extensively used for irrigation, so that the river often disappears in the desert instead of reaching the lake to whose basin it nominally belongs. This is the case even with the main river of the Tarim Basin, the Tarim River, Tarim, which has been dammed at a number of locations along its course, and whose waters have been completely diverted before they can reach the Lop Lake. In the Dzungarian basin, a similar situation occurs with most rivers that historically flowed into Lake Manas. Some of the salt lakes, having lost much of their fresh water inflow, are now extensively use for the production of mineral salts (used e.g., in the manufacturing of potassium fertilizers); this includes the Lop Lake and the Manas Lake.
Deserts
Deserts include: * Gurbantünggüt Desert, also known as ''Dzoosotoyn Elisen'' * Taklamakan Desert * Kumtag Desert, east of TaklamakanMajor cities
Due to water scarcity, most of Xinjiang's population lives within fairly narrow belts that are stretched along the foothills of the region's mountain ranges in areas conducive to irrigated agriculture. It is in these belts where most of the region's cities are found.
* Ürümqi
* Turpan
* Kashgar
* Karamay
* Ghulja
* Shihezi
* Hotan
* Artush
* Aksu, Xinjiang, Aksu
* Korla
Climate
A semiarid or desert climate (Köppen climate classification, Köppen ''BSk'' or ''BWk'', respectively) prevails in Xinjiang. The entire region has great seasonal differences in temperature with cold winters. The Turpan Depression often records some of the hottest temperatures nationwide in summer, with air temperatures easily exceeding {{convert, 40, °C. Winter temperatures regularly fall below {{convert, −20, °C in the far north and highest mountain elevations. On 18 February 2024, a record low temperature for the region of {{convert, −52.3, °C was recorded. Continuous permafrost is typically found in the Tian Shan starting at the elevation of about 3,500–3,700 m above sea level. Discontinuous alpine permafrost usually occurs down to 2,700–3,300 m, but in certain locations, due to the peculiarity of the Aspect (geography), aspect and the microclimate, it can be found at elevations as low as 2,000 m.Time
{{main, Xinjiang Time, Time in China#Xinjiang Despite the province's easternmost point being more than {{Convert, 1600, km west of Beijing, Xinjiang, like the rest of China, is officially in the UTC+8 time zone, known by residents as Beijing Time. Despite this, some residents, local organizations and governments observe UTC+6 as the standard time and refer to this zone as Xinjiang Time. Han people tend to use Beijing Time, while Uyghurs tend to use Xinjiang Time as a form of resistance to Beijing.{{cite journal , last=Han , first=Enze , year=2010 , title=Boundaries, Discrimination, and Interethnic Conflict in Xinjiang, China , url=http://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/download/77/196 , url-status=live , journal=International Journal of Conflict and Violence , volume=4 , issue=2 , page=251 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019103838/http://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/download/77/196 , archive-date=19 October 2014 , access-date=14 December 2012 Time zones notwithstanding, most schools and businesses open and close two hours later than in the other regions of China.Politics
{{Further, List of current Chinese provincial leaders
Structure
{, class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; text-align:center" , +Current leaders of the Xinjiang Regional Government ! ! style="width:25%" ,
! style="width:25%" ,
! style="width:25%" ,
! style="width:25%" ,
, -
!Title
, style="text-align:center;" , Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary, CCP Committee Secretary
, style="text-align:center;" , People's Congress Chairwoman
, style="text-align:center;" , Chairman
, style="text-align:center;" , Xinjiang CPPCC Chairman
, -
!Name
, Ma Xingrui
, Zumret Obul
, Erkin Tuniyaz
, Nurlan Abilmazhinuly
, -
!Born
, {{Birth year and age, 1959, 10
, {{Birth year and age, 1959, 08
, {{Birth year and age, 1961, 11
, {{Birth year and age, 1962, 12
, -
!Assumed office
, December 2021
, January 2023
, September 2021
, January 2023
Like all Politics of China, governing institutions in mainland China, Xinjiang has a parallel party-government system. The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional Committee of the CCP acts as the top policy-formulation body, and exercises control over the Regional People's Government. The CCP Committee Secretary, generally a member of the Han ethnic group, outranks the Government Chairman, always an Uyghur. The Government Chairman typically serves as a Deputy Committee Secretary.{{Cite web , title=Decoding Chinese Politics , url=https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/decoding-chinese-politics , access-date=2 October 2023 , website=Asia Society
; Chairmen of the Xinjiang Government
# 1949–1955: Burhan Shahidi ({{lang, zh-hans, 包尔汉·沙希迪; {{lang, ug, بۇرھان شەھىدى)
# 1955–1967: Saifuddin Azizi ({{lang, zh-hans, 赛福鼎·艾则孜; {{lang, ug, سەيپىدىن ئەزىزى)
# 1968–1972: Long Shujin ({{lang, zh-hans, 龙书金)
# 1972–1978: Saifuddin Azizi ({{lang, zh-hans, 赛福鼎·艾则孜; {{lang, ug, سەيپىدىن ئەزىزى)
# 1978–1979: Wang Feng (politician), Wang Feng ({{lang, zh-hans, 汪锋)
# 1979–1985: Ismail Amat ({{lang, zh-hans, 司马义·艾买提; {{lang, ug, ئىسمائىل ئەھمەد)
# 1985–1993: Tömür Dawamat ({{lang, zh-hans, 铁木尔·达瓦买提; {{lang, ug, تۆمۈر داۋامەت)
# 1993–2003: Ablet Abdureshit, Abdul'ahat Abdulrixit ({{lang, zh-hans, 阿不来提·阿不都热西提; {{lang, ug, ئابلەت ئابدۇرىشىت)
# 2003–2007: Ismail Tiliwaldi ({{lang, zh-hans, 司马义·铁力瓦尔地; {{lang, ug, ئىسمائىل تىلىۋالدى)
# 2007–2015: Nur Bekri ({{lang, zh-hans, 努尔·白克力; {{lang, ug, نۇر بەكرى)
# 2015–2021: Shohrat Zakir ({{lang, zh-hans, 雪克来提·扎克尔; {{lang, ug, شۆھرەت زاكىر)
# Since 2021: Erkin Tuniyaz ({{lang, zh-hans, 艾尔肯·吐尼亚孜; {{lang, ug, ئەركىن تۇنىياز)
Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
Xinjiang maintains the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC), an economic and paramilitary organization administered by the Chinese government and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It plays a critical role in the region's economy, owning or being otherwise connected to many companies in the region as well as dominating Xinjiang's agricultural output.{{Cite news , date=9 January 2020 , title=Dismantling China's Muslim gulag in Xinjiang is not enough , newspaper=The Economist , url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/01/09/dismantling-chinas-muslim-gulag-in-xinjiang-is-not-enough , url-status=live , access-date=2020-01-19 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119100700/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/01/09/dismantling-chinas-muslim-gulag-in-xinjiang-is-not-enough , archive-date=19 January 2020 , issn=0013-0613 It additionally directly administers cities throughout Xinjiang, mainly concentrated in the northern parts. It is headed by the CCP secretary of Xinjiang, while the CCP secretary of the XPCC is considered the second most powerful person in the region.Human rights abuses
{{Main, Human rights in China, Xinjiang internment camps, Persecution of Uyghurs in China {{See also, Law of the People's Republic of China Human Rights Watch has documented ''the denial of due legal process and fair trials and failure to hold genuinely open trials as mandated by law'' e.g. to suspects arrested following ethnic violence in the city of Ürümqi's 2009 riots. The Chinese government, under Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping Administration, Xi Jinping's administration, launched the Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism in 2014, which involved mass detention and surveillance of ethnic Uyghurs there; the program was massively expanded by Chen Quanguo when he was appointed as CCP Xinjiang secretary in 2016. The campaign included the detainment of 1.8 million people in Xinjiang internment camps, internment camps, mostly Uyghurs, but also including other ethnic and religious minorities, by 2020.{{Cite magazine , last=Khatchadourian , first=Raffi , date=5 April 2021 , title=Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang , magazine=The New Yorker , url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/12/surviving-the-crackdown-in-xinjiang , access-date=19 March 2023 An October 2018 Investigative journalism, exposé by BBC News claimed, based on analysis of satellite imagery collected over time, that hundreds of thousands of Uyghurs were likely interned in the camps, and they are rapidly being expanded. In 2019, ''The Art Newspaper'' reported that "hundreds" of writers, artists, and academics had been imprisoned in (what the magazine qualified as) an attempt to "punish any form of religious or cultural expression" among Uyghurs. This program has been called a genocide by some observers, while UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang, a report by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Human Rights Office said they may amount to crimes against humanity. On 28 June 2020, the Associated Press published a report which stated the Chinese government was taking draconian measures to slash birth rates among Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities in Xinjiang, even as it encouraged some of the country's Han majority to have more children.{{Cite news , last=AP's global investigative team , date=28 June 2020 , title=China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization , work=The Associated Press , url=https://apnews.com/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c , access-date=1 August 2020 While individual women have spoken out before about forced birth control, the practice was far more widespread and systematic than previously known, according to an AP investigation based on government statistics, state documents and interviews with 30 ex-detainees, family members and a former detention camp instructor. The campaign over the past four years in Xinjiang has been labeled by some experts as a form of "demographic genocide." The allegation of Uyghur birth rates being lower than those of Han Chinese have been disputed by pundits from ''Pakistan Observer'', Antara (news agency), Antara,{{Cite web , last1=M. Irfan Ilmie , last2=Tia Mutiasari , date=2021-01-11 , title=Populasi Uighur naik 25 persen, pemerintah Xinjiang bantu cek keluarga , trans-title=Uighur population up 25 percent, Xinjiang government helps check families , url=https://www.antaranews.com/berita/1940188/populasi-uighur-naik-25-persen-pemerintah-xinjiang-bantu-cek-keluarga , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614144118/https://www.antaranews.com/berita/1940188/populasi-uighur-naik-25-persen-pemerintah-xinjiang-bantu-cek-keluarga , archive-date=2021-06-14 , website=Antara News , language=id and Detik.com.East Turkestan independence movement
{{Main, Xinjiang conflict, East Turkestan independence movement
Some factions in Xinjiang, most prominently Uyghur nationalism, Uyghur nationalists, advocate establishing an independent country named East Turkestan (also sometimes called "Uyghuristan"), which has led to tension, Xinjiang conflict, conflict, and ethnic strife in the region. Autonomous regions in China do not have a legal right to secede, and each one is considered to be an "inseparable part of the People's Republic of China" by the government. The separatist movement claims that the region is not part of China, but was invaded by the CCP in 1949 and has been under occupation since then. The Chinese government asserts that the region has been part of China since ancient times, and has engaged in "strike hard" campaigns targeted at separatists.Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China
Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215105736/http://www.apcss.org/college/publications/uyghur-muslim-ethnic-separatism-in-xinjiang-china/, date=15 December 2013'' The movement has been supported by both militant Islamic extremist groups such as the Turkistan Islamic Party, as well as certain advocacy groups with no connection to extremist groups. According to the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, the two main sources for separatism in the Xinjiang Province are religion and ethnicity. Religiously, the most Uyghur peoples of Xinjiang follow Islam; in the rest of China, many are Buddhist, Taoism, Taoist and Confucianism, Confucian, although many follow Islam as well, such as the Hui people, Hui ethnic subgroup of the Han ethnicity, comprising some 10 million people. Thus, the major difference and source of friction with eastern China is ethnicity and religious doctrinal differences that differentiate them politically from other Muslim minorities elsewhere in the country.
Economy
{, class="wikitable" align="right" , -bgcolor=eeeeee ! align=center colspan=2 , Development of GDP , ---- , -bgcolor=eeeeee , Year , align="right" , GDP in billions of Yuan , ---- , 1995 , align="right" , 82 , ---- , 2000 , align="right" , 136 , ---- , 2005 , align="right" , 260 , ---- , 2010 , align="right" , 544 , ---- , 2015 , align="right" , 932 , ---- , 2020 , align="right" , 1,380 , ---- , colspan=2 , Source:Historical GDP of Provinces {{cite press release , url=https://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn=E0103, title=Home – Regional – Annual by Province, publisher=China NBS, date=31 January 2020, access-date=31 January 2020
The GDP of Xinjiang was about {{CNY, 1.774 trillion, link=yes ({{US$, 263 billion) {{As of, 2022, lc=y.{{cite web, url=https://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn=E0103, title=National Data, publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China, date=1 March 2022, access-date=23 March 2022 Economic growth has been fueled by to discovery of the abundant reserves of coal, oil, gas as well as the China Western Development policy introduced by the State Council to boost economic development in Western China.{{Cite web , title=Xinjiang Province: Economic News and Statistics for Xinjiang's Economy , url=http://thechinaperspective.com/topics/province/xinjiang-province/ , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008045314/http://thechinaperspective.com/topics/province/xinjiang-province/ , archive-date=8 October 2011 , access-date=22 October 2011 Its List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita, per capita GDP for 2022 was {{CNY, 68,552 ({{US$, 10,191). Southern Xinjiang, with 95 percent non-Han population, has an average per capita income half that of Xinjiang as a whole. XPCC plays an outsized role in Xinjiang's economy, with the organization producing Renminbi, {{CNY, 350 billion, link= ({{US$, 52 billion), or around 19.7% of Xinjiang's economy, while the per capita GDP was {{CNY, 98,748 ({{US$, 14,680).{{Cite web , date=28 March 2023 , title=新疆生产建设兵团2022年国民经济和社会发展统计公报 , url=https://www.btdsys.gov.cn/zyxw/tzgg/5647.html#:~:text=%E5%85%A8%E5%B9%B4%E4%BA%BA%E5%9D%87%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%A7%E6%80%BB,%E5%B9%B4%E6%9C%AB%E5%A2%9E%E5%8A%A012.00%E4%B8%87%E4%BA%BA%E3%80%82 , access-date=2023-06-22 , website=www.btdsys.gov.cn
Economic development of Xinjiang is a priority for China.{{Cite book , last=Zhao , first=Huasheng , url=, title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform , date=2016 , publisher=Stanford University Press , others=Thomas Fingar , isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 , location=Stanford, California , page=180 , chapter=Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking , oclc=939553543 In 2000, the government articulated its strategy for developing the Western China, western regions of the country, and that plan made Xinjiang a major focus. Accelerating development in Xinjiang is intended by China to achieve a number of objectives, including narrowing the economic gap between Xinjiang and the more developed eastern provinces, as well as alleviating political discontent and security problems by alleviating poverty and raising the standard of living in order to increase stability. From 2014 to 2020, fiscal transfers from China's central government to Xinjiang grew by an average of 10.4% per year.{{Cite book , last1=Tsang , first1=Steve , author-link=Steve Chang , title=The Political Thought of Xi Jinping , last2=Cheung , first2=Olivia , publisher=Oxford University Press , year=2024 , isbn=9780197689363{{Rp, page=110
In July 2010, state media outlet ''China Daily'' reported that:
Local governments in China's 19 provinces and Direct-administered municipalities of China, municipalities, including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangdong, Zhejiang and Liaoning, are engaged in the commitment of "pairing assistance" support projects in Xinjiang to promote the development of agriculture, industry, technology, education and health services in the region.{{cite news , url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-07/05/content_10058467.htm , title=Efforts to boost 'leapfrog development' in Xinjiang , publisher=China Daily{{\Xinhua , date=5 July 2010 , access-date=14 July 2010 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723193952/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-07/05/content_10058467.htm , archive-date=23 July 2010 , url-status=liveXinjiang has traditionally been an agricultural region, but is also rich in minerals and Petroleum, oil. Xinjiang is a major producer of solar panel components due to its large production of the base material polysilicon. In 2020 45 percent of global production of solar-grade polysilicon occurred in Xinjiang. Concerns have been raised both within the solar industry and outside it that forced labor may occur in the Xinjiang part of the supply chain. The global solar panel industry are under pressure to move sourcing away from the region due to human rights and liability concerns. China's solar association claimed the allegations were baseless and unfairly stigmatized firms with operations there. A 2021 investigation in the United Kingdom found that 40 percent of solar farms in the UK had been built using panels from Chinese companies linked to forced labor in Xinjiang.
Agriculture and fishing
Main area is of irrigated agriculture. By 2015, the agricultural land area of the region is 631 thousand km2 or 63.1 million ha, of which 6.1 million ha is arable land. In 2016, the total cultivated land rose to 6.2 million ha, with the crop production reaching 15.1 million tons. Agriculture in Xinjiang is dominated by the XPCC, which employs a majority of the organization's workforce. Wheat was the main staple crop of the region, maize grown as well, millet found in the south, while only a few areas (in particular, Aksu) grew rice.{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, pp=112–113 Cotton became an important crop in several oases, notably Hotan, Yarkant County, Yarkand and Turpan by the late 19th century.{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, pp=112–113 Sericulture is also practiced.{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, p=152 The Xinjiang cotton industry is the world's largest cotton exporter, producing 84 percent of Chinese cotton while the country provides 26 percent of global cotton export.{{Cite news , last1=Caster , first1=Michael , title=It's time to boycott any company doing business in Xinjiang , work=The Guardian , date=27 October 2019 , url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/27/its-time-to-boycott-any-company-doing-business-in-xinjiang , language=en-GB , issn=0261-3077 , access-date=27 November 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127183339/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/27/its-time-to-boycott-any-company-doing-business-in-xinjiang , archive-date=27 November 2019 , url-status=live Xinjiang also produces Capsicum, peppers and pepper pigments used in cosmetics such lipstick for export. Xinjiang is famous for its grapes, melons, pears, walnuts, particularly Hami melons and Turpan raisins.{{Citation needed, date=November 2019 The region is also a leading source for tomato paste, which it supplies for international brands.{{r, Guardian boycott The main livestock of the region have traditionally been sheep. Much of the region's pasture land is in its northern part, where more precipitation is available,{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, p=37 but there are mountain pastures throughout the region.{{Citation needed, date=October 2021 Due to the lack of access to the ocean and limited amount of inland water, Xinjiang's fish resources are somewhat limited. Nonetheless, there is a significant amount of fishing in Lake Ulungur and Lake Bosten and in the Irtysh River. A large number of fish ponds have been constructed since the 1970s, their total surface exceeding 10,000 hectares by the 1990s. In 2000, the total of 58,835 tons of fish was produced in Xinjiang, 85 percent of which came from aquaculture in China, aquaculture. The Sayram Lake is both the largest alpine lake and highest altitude lake in Xinjiang, and is the location of a major cold-water fishery.{{Citation needed, date=October 2021 Originally Sayram had no fish but in 1998, Peled (fish), northern whitefish (Coregonus peled) from Russia were introduced and investment in breeding infrastructure and technology has consequently made Sayram into the country's largest exporter of northern whitefish with an annual output of over 400 metric tons.{{Better source needed, date=October 2021Mining and minerals
Xinjiang was known for producing salt, Sodium, soda, borax, gold, and jade in the 19th century.{{sfnp, Mesny , 1899 , p=386 The Lop Nur, Lop Lake was once a large brackish lake during the end of the Pleistocene but has slowly dried up in the Holocene where average annual precipitation in the area has declined to just 31.2 millimeters (1.2 inches), and experiences annual evaporation rate of 2,901 millimeters (114 inches). The area is rich in brine Potash, a key ingredient in fertilizer and is the second-largest source of potash in the country. Discovery of potash in the mid-1990s, has transformed Lop Nur into a major Potash mining industry. The oil and natural gas, gas extraction industry in Aksu and Karamay is growing, with the West–East Gas Pipeline linking to Shanghai. The oil and petrochemical sector get up to 60 percent of Xinjiang's economy. The region contains over a fifth of China's hydrocarbon resources and has the highest concentration of fossil fuel reserves of any region in the country. The region is rich in coal and contains 40 percent of the country's coal reserves or around 2.2 trillion tonnes, which is enough to supply China's thermal coal demand for more than 100 years even if only 15 percent of the estimated coal reserve prove recoverable. Tarim basin is the largest oil and gas bearing area in the country with about 16 billion tonnes of oil and gas reserves discovered. The area is still actively explored and in 2021, China National Petroleum Corporation found a new oil field reserve of 1 billion tons (about 907 million tonnes). That find is regarded as being the largest one in recent decades. As of 2021, the basin produces hydrocarbons at an annual rate of 2 million tons, up from 1.52 million tons from 2020. {{Further, Dabei gas field, Dina-2 gas fieldForeign trade
Trade with Central Asian countries is crucial to Xinjiang's economy. Most of the overall import/export volume in Xinjiang was directed to and from Kazakhstan through Ala Pass. China's first border free trade zone (Horgos Free Trade Zone) was located at the Xinjiang-Kazakhstan border city of Horgos. Horgos is the largest "land port" in China's western region and it has easy access to the Central Asian market. Xinjiang also opened its second border trade market to Kazakhstan in March 2006, the Jeminay Border Trade Zone.Economic and Technological Development Zones
* Bole Border Economic Cooperation Area * Shihezi Border Economic Cooperation Area * Tacheng Border Economic Cooperation Area
* Ürümqi Economic & Technological Development Zone is northwest of Ürümqi. It was approved in 1994 by the State Council as a national level economic and technological development zones. It is {{cvt, 1.5, km from the Ürümqi International Airport, {{cvt, 2, km from the North Railway Station and {{cvt, 10, km from the city center. Wu Chang Expressway and 312 National Road passes through the zone. The development has unique resources and geographical advantages. Xinjiang's vast land, rich in resources, borders eight countries. As the leading economic zone, it brings together the resources of Xinjiang's industrial development, capital, technology, information, personnel and other factors of production.
* Ürümqi Export Processing Zone is in Urumuqi Economic and Technology Development Zone. It was established in 2007 as a state-level export processing zone.
* Ürümqi New & Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone was established in 1992 and it is the only high-tech development zone in Xinjiang, China. There are more than 3470 enterprises in the zone, of which 23 are Fortune 500 companies. It has a planned area of {{convert, 9.8, km2, abbr=on and it is divided into four zones. There are plans to expand the zone.
* Yining Border Economic Cooperation Area
Culture
{{Further, Uyghur cuisine, List of Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Xinjiang {{Expand section, date=December 2020Media
The Xinjiang Networking Transmission Limited operates the Urumqi People's Broadcasting Station and the Xinjiang People's Broadcasting Station, Xinjiang People Broadcasting Station, broadcasting in Standard Chinese, Mandarin, Uyghur, Kazakh language, Kazakh and Mongolian language, Mongolian. {{As of, 1995, alt=In 1995, there were 50 minority-language newspapers published in Xinjiang, including the ''Qapqal News'', the world's only Xibe language newspaper.{{Cite news, title=News Media for Ethnic Minorities in China, date=25 October 1995, access-date=13 April 2009, url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-17895275.html, periodical=Xinhua News, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025081732/http://www.highbeam.com/Search?searchTerm=News+Media+for+Ethnic+Minorities+in+China&searchType=Article¤tPage=0&orderBy=, archive-date=25 October 2012 The ''Xinjiang Economic Daily'' is considered one of China's most dynamic newspapers. For a time after the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, July 2009 riots, authorities placed restrictions on the internet and text messaging, gradually permitting access to state-controlled websites like Xinhua News Agency, until restoring Internet to the same level as the rest of China on 14 May 2010.Demographics
{{Further, Migration to Xinjiang, Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin
{{Historical populations
, title = Historical population
, 1912 , 2,098,000
, 1928 , 2,552,000
, 1936–37 , 4,360,000
, 1947 , 4,047,000
, 1954{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm , script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于第一次全国人口调查登记结果的公报 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174810/http://www.stats.gov.cn/TJGB/RKPCGB/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm , archive-date=5 August 2009 , 4,873,608
, 1964{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16768.htm , script-title=zh:第二次全国人口普查结果的几项主要统计数字 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914173158/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16768.htm , archive-date=14 September 2012 , 7,270,067
, 1982{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16769.htm , script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九八二年人口普查主要数字的公报 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510075429/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16769.htm , archive-date=10 May 2012 , 13,081,681
, 1990{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16772.htm , script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九九〇年人口普查主要数据的公报 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619002216/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16772.htm , archive-date=19 June 2012 , 15,155,778
, 2000{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020331_15435.htm , script-title=zh:现将2000年第五次全国人口普查快速汇总的人口地区分布数据公布如下 , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829052024/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020331_15435.htm , archive-date=29 August 2012 , 18,459,511
, 2010{{cite web , url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110429_402722516.htm , title=Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census , publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727021210/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110429_402722516.htm , archive-date=27 July 2013 , 21,813,334
, 2020 , 25,852,345
The earliest Tarim mummies, dated to 1800 BC, are of a Caucasian race, Caucasoid physical type. East Asian migrants arrived in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin about 3000 years ago and the Uyghur peoples appeared after the collapse of the Orkon Uyghur Kingdom, based in modern-day Mongolia, around 842 AD.
The Islamization of Xinjiang started around 1000 AD. Xinjiang Muslim Turkic peoples contain Uyghurs, Kazaks, Kyrgyz, Tatars, Uzbeks; Muslim Iranian peoples comprise Tajiks, Tajiks of Xinjiang, Sarikolis/Wakhi people, Wakhis (often conflated as Tajiks); Muslim Sino-Tibetan languages, Sino-Tibetan peoples are such as the Hui. Other list of ethnic groups in China, ethnic groups in the region are Hans, Mongols (Oirats, Daur people, Daurs, Dongxiangs), Russians, Sibe people, Xibes, Manchus. Around 70,000 Russians in China, Russian immigrants were living in Xinjiang in 1945.
The Han Chinese of Xinjiang arrived at different times from different directions and social backgrounds. There are now descendants of criminals and officials who had been exiled from China during the second half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries; descendants of families of military and civil officers from Hunan, Yunnan, Gansu and Manchuria; descendants of merchants from Shanxi, Tianjin, Hubei and Hunan; and descendants of peasants who started immigrating into the region in 1776.{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, pp=51–52
Some Uyghur scholars claim descent from both the Turkic Uyghurs and the pre-Turkic Tocharians (or Tokharians, whose language was Indo-European); also, Uyghurs often have relatively-fair skin, hair and eyes and other Caucasoid physical traits.
In 2002, there were 9,632,600 males (growth rate of 1.0 percent) and 9,419,300 females (growth rate of 2.2 percent). The population overall growth rate was 1.09 percent, with 1.63 percent of birth rate and 0.54 percent mortality rate.
The Qing began a migration to Xinjiang, process of settling Han, Hui, and Uyghur settlers into Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria) in the 18th century. At the start of the 19th century, 40 years after the Qing reconquest, there were around 155,000 Han and Hui Chinese in northern Xinjiang and somewhat more than twice that number of Uyghurs in Southern Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=306 A census of Xinjiang under Qing rule in the early 19th century tabulated ethnic shares of the population as 30 percent Han and 60 percent Turkic and it dramatically shifted to 6 percent Han and 75 percent Uyghur in the 1953 census. However, a situation similar to the Qing era's demographics with a large number of Han had been restored by 2000, with 40.57 percent Han and 45.21 percent Uyghur.{{cite journal , first=Stanley , last=Toops , url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp001.pdf , title=Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949 , date=May 2004 , page=1 , issue=1 , periodical=East-West Center Washington Working Papers , publisher=East–West Center , access-date=14 November 2010 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716193518/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp001.pdf , archive-date=16 July 2007 Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Starr, 2004, 243
} Before 1831, only a few hundred Chinese merchants lived in Southern Xinjiang oases (Tarim Basin), and only a few Uyghurs lived in Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria).{{sfnp, Millward, 2007, p=104 After 1831, the Qing encouraged Han Chinese migration into the Tarim Basin, in southern Xinjiang, but with very little success, and permanent troops were stationed on the land there as well.{{sfnp, Millward , 2007 , p=105 Political killings and expulsions of non-Uyghur populations during the uprisings in the 1860s{{sfnp, Millward, 2007, p=105 and the 1930s saw them experience a sharp decline as a percentage of the total population{{sfnp, Bellér-Hann, 2008, p=52 though they rose once again in the periods of stability from 1880, which saw Xinjiang increase its population from 1.2 million,{{sfnp, Mesny, 1896, p=272{{sfnp, Mesny , 1899, p=485 to 1949. From a low of 7 percent in 1953, the Han began to return to Xinjiang between then and 1964, where they comprised 33 percent of the population (54 percent Uyghur), like in Qing times. A decade later, at the beginning of the Chinese economic reform in 1978, the demographic balance was 46 percent Uyghur and 40 percent Han, which did not change drastically until the 2000 Census, when the Uyghur population had reduced to 42 percent.{{cite web , title=China: Human Rights Concerns in Xinjiang , url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm , date=October 2001 , work=Human Rights Watch Backgrounder , publisher=Human Rights Watch , access-date=4 December 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112153554/http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/china-bck1017.htm , archive-date=12 November 2008 , url-status=live In 2010, the population of Xinjiang was 45.84 percent Uyghur and 40.48 percent Han. The 2020 Census showed the share of the Uyghur population decline slightly to 44.96 percent, and the Han population rise to 42.24 percent Military personnel are not counted and ethnic minorities in China, national minorities are undercounted in the Chinese census, as in some other censuses.{{sfnp, Starr, 2004,
242
} 3.6 million people reside in XPCC administered areas, around 14 percent of Xinjiang's population. While some of the shift has been attributed to an increased Han presence, Uyghurs have also emigrated to other parts of China, where their numbers have increased steadily. Uyghur independence activists express concern over the Han population changing the Uyghur character of the region though the Han and Hui Chinese mostly live in Northern Xinjiang Dzungaria and are separated from areas of historic Uyghur dominance south of the Tian Shan mountains (Southwestern Xinjiang), where Uyghurs account for about 90 percent of the population.{{cite book , trans-title=Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China, language=zh-Hans-CN, script-title=zh:2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料 , location=Beijing, publisher=Nationalities Publishing House, year=2003, isbn=978-7-105-05425-1, oclc=54494505 In general, Uyghurs are the majority in Southwestern Xinjiang, including the prefectures of Kashgar, Khotan, Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture, Kizilsu and Aksu (about 80 percent of Xinjiang's Uyghurs live in those four prefectures) as well as Turpan, Turpan Prefecture, in Eastern Xinjiang. The Han are the majority in Eastern and Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria), including the cities of Ürümqi, Karamay, Shihezi and the prefectures of Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Changjyi, Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala, Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bayin'gholin, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili (especially the cities of Kuytun, Kuitun) and Hami, Kumul. Kazakhs are mostly concentrated in Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili Prefecture in Northern Xinjiang. Kazakhs are the majority in the northernmost part of Xinjiang. {, class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="text-align:right;" ! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" , Ethnic groups in Xinjiang , - ! colspan="3" , {{smaller, 2020 Chinese census , - ! List of ethnic groups in China, Nationality !! Population !! Percentage , - , style="text-align:left;" , Uyghurs, Uyghur, , 11,624,257 , , 44.96 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Han Chinese, Han, , 10,920,098 , , 42.24 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Kazakhs, Kazakh, , 1,539,636 , , 5.96 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Hui people, Hui, , 1,102,928 , , 4.27 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Kyrgyz people, Kirghiz, , 199,264 , , 0.77 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Oirats, Mongols, , 169,143 , , 0.65 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Dongxiang people, Dongxiang, , 72,036 , , 0.28 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Chinese Tajiks, Tajiks, , 50,238 , , 0.19 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Sibe people, Xibe, , 34,105 , , 0.13 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Manchu people, Manchu, , 20,915 , , 0.080 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Tujia people, Tujia, , 15,787 , , 0.086 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Tibetan people, Tibetan, , 18,276 , , 0.071 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Uzbeks, Uzbek, , 12,301 , , 0.048 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Miao people, Miao, , 12,220 , , 0.047 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Russians in China, Russian, , 8,024 , , 0.031 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Yi people, Yi, , 7,752 , , 0.030 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Zhuang people, Zhuang, , 5,727 , , 0.022 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Daur people, Daur, , 5,447 , , 0.021 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Chinese Tatars, Tatar, , 5,183 , , 0.024 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Monguor people, Tu , , 3,827 , , 0.015 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Salar people, Salar , , 3,266 , , 0.013 percent , - , style="text-align:left;" , Other , , 11,764 , , 0.046 percent {, class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" ! style="text-align: center;" colspan="5", Major ethnic groups in Xinjiang by region (2018 data){{efn-ur, Does not include members of the People's Liberation Army in active service.
P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level city; DACLC = Directly administered county-level city.{{Cite web, date=2020-06-10, title=, script-title=zh:3–7 各地、州、市、县(市)分民族人口数, trans-title=3–7 Prefectural, Municipal, and County-level Population by Ethnicity, url=http://tjj.xinjiang.gov.cn/tjj/rkjyu/202006/3b1eef1049114b0c9cf9e81bf18433ef.shtml, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101062133/http://tjj.xinjiang.gov.cn/tjj/rkjyu/202006/3b1eef1049114b0c9cf9e81bf18433ef.shtml, archive-date=2020-11-01, access-date=2021-10-11, publisher=Statistic Bureau of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, language=zh , - ! !! Uyghurs {{nobold, (%) !! Han Chinese, Han {{nobold, (%) !! Kazakhs {{nobold, (%) !! others {{nobold, (%) , - , style="text-align:left;", Xinjiang , , 51.14, , 34.41, , 6.90, , 7.55 , - , style="text-align:left;", Ürümqi PLC , , 12.85 , , 71.21 , 2.77 , , 13.16 , - , style="text-align:left;", Karamay PLC , , 15.59 , , 74.67, , 4.05 , , 5.69 , - , style="text-align:left;", Turpan, Turpan Prefecture , , 76.96, , 16.84 , , 0.05 , , 6.15 , - , style="text-align:left;", Hami Prefecture, Kumul Prefecture , , 20.01 , , 65.49, , 10.04 , , 4.46 , - , style="text-align:left;", Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Changji AP , , 4.89 , , 72.28, , 10.34 , , 12.49 , - , style="text-align:left;", Börtala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala AP , , 14.76 , , 63.27, , 10.41 , , 11.56 , - , style="text-align:left;", Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bayin'gholin AP , , 36.38 , , 53.31, , 0.11 , , 10.20 , - , style="text-align:left;", Aksu Prefecture , , 80.08, , 18.56 , , 0.01 , , 1.36 , - , style="text-align:left;", Kizilsu Kirgiz Autonomous Prefecture, Kizilsu AP , , 66.24, , 6.29 , , 0.03 , , 27.44 , - , style="text-align:left;", Kashgar, Kashgar Prefecture , , 92.56, , 6.01 , , < 0.005 , , 1.42 , - , style="text-align:left;", Khotan, Khotan Prefecture , , 96.96, , 2.85 , , < 0.005 , , 0.19 , - , style="text-align:left;", Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Ili AP{{efn, group=n, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture is composed of Kuytun, Kuitun DACLC, Tacheng Prefecture, Altay Prefecture, Aletai Prefecture, and the former Ili Prefecture. Ili Prefecture has been disbanded and its former area is now directly administered by Ili AP. , , 17.95 , , 40.09 , , 27.16 , , 14.80 , - , style="text-align:left;" , – ''former Ili Prefecture'', , 26.30 , , 35.21 , , 21.57 , , 16.91 , - , style="text-align:left;" , – ''Tacheng Prefecture'', , 4.25 , , 54.66, , 26.66 , , 14.43 , - , style="text-align:left;" , – ''Altay Prefecture'', , 1.42 , , 39.85 , , 52.76, , 5.97 , - , Shihezi DACLC , , 1.09 , , 94.13, , 0.63 , , 4.15 , - , , Aral, Xinjiang, Aral DACLC , , 3.66 , , 91.96 , , < 0.005 , , 4.38 , - , , Tumushuke DACLC , , 67.49 , , 31.73 , , < 0.005 , , 0.78 , - , Wujiaqu DACLC , , 0.05 , , 96.29 , , 0.10 , , 3.55 , - , , Tiemenguan City, Tiemenguan DACLC , , 0.07 , , 95.96 , , 0.00 , , 3.97 {{Notelist-ur
Vital statistics
{, class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: right;" , - ! Year ! Population ! Live births ! Deaths ! Natural change ! Crude birth rate(per 1000) ! Crude death rate
(per 1000) ! Natural change
(per 1000) , - , 2011 , 22,090,000 , , , , , , 14.99, , 4.42, , 10.57 , - , 2012 , 22,330,000 , , , , , , 15.32, , 4.48, , 10.84 , - , 2013 , 22,640,000 , , , , , , 15.84, , 4.92, , 10.92 , - , 2014 , 22,980,000 , , , , , , 16.44, , 4.97, , 11.47 , - , 2015 , 23,600,000 , , , , , , 15.59, , 4.51, , 11.08 , - , 2016 , 23,980,000 , , , , , , 15.34, , 4.26, , 11.08 , - , 2017 , 24,450,000 , , , , , , 15.88, , 4.48, , 11.40 , - , 2018 , 24,870,000 , , , , , , 10.69, , 4.56, , 6.13 , - , 2019 , 25,230,000 , , , , , , 8.14, , 4.45, , 3.69 , - , 2020 , 25,852,000 , , , , , , 7.01, , , , , - , 2021 , 25,890,000 , , , , , , 6.16, , 5.60, , 0.56
Religion
{{Further, Islam in China, Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party{{Pie chart , caption = Religion in Xinjiang (around 2010) , label1 = Islam , value1 = 58 , color1 = Green , label2 = Buddhism , value2 = 32 , color2 = Yellow , label3 = Taoism , value3 = 9 , color3 = Red , label4 = Christianity , value4 = 1 , color4 = DodgerBlue The major religions in Xinjiang are Islam in China, Islam, practiced largely by Uyghurs and the Hui Chinese minority, as well as Chinese folk religions, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, practiced essentially by the Han Chinese. According to a demographic analysis of the year 2010, Muslims formed 58 percent of the province's population.Min Junqing. ''The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China''. JISMOR, 82010 Islam by province, page 29
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427140204/https://doors.doshisha.ac.jp/duar/repository/ir/18185/r002000080004.pdf , date=27 April 2017 . Data from Yang Zongde, ''Study on Current Muslim Population in China'', Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010. In 1950, there were 29,000 mosques and 54,000 imams in Xinjiang, which fell to 14,000 mosques and 29,000 imams by 1966. Following the Cultural Revolution, there were only about 1,400 remaining mosques. By the mid-1980's, the number of mosques had returned to 1950 levels.{{cite book, url=https://archive.org/details/humanrightsdevel0000seym, title=China Rights Annals 1 Human Rights Developments in the People's Republic of China from October 1983 through September 1984, author=James D. Seymour, publisher=M. E. Sharpe, date=1985, pag
90
isbn=978-0-87332-320-8, via=Internet Archive According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang – 65 percent of the region's total. Christianity in Xinjiang is the religion of 1 percent of the population according to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009.{{cite thesis , degree=PhD , title=Explaining Christianity in China: Why a Foreign Religion has Taken Root in Unfertile Ground , url=https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1 , first=Xiuhua , last=Wang , year=2015 , page=15 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925123928/https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1 , archive-date=25 September 2015 , publisher=Baylor University A majority of the Uyghur Muslims adhere to Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence or madhab.{{cn, date=June 2023 A minority of Shia Islam, Shias, almost exclusively of the Nizari Isma'ilism, Nizari Ismaili (Seveners) rites are located in the higher mountains of Tajik and Tian Shan. In the western mountains (the Tajiks), almost the entire population of Tajiks (Sarikolis and Wakhis), are Nizari Isma'ilism, Ismaili Shia. In the north, in the Tian Shan, the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz are Sunni. Afaq Khoja Mausoleum and Id Kah Mosque in Kashgar are most important Islamic Xinjiang sites. Emin Minaret in Turfan is a key Islamic site. Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves is a notable Buddhist site. In Awat County also lies a huge park with a statue of Turkish-Muslim philosopher Nasreddin.
Sports
Xinjiang is home to the Xinjiang Flying Tigers professional basketball team of the Chinese Basketball Association, and to Xinjiang Tianshan Leopard F.C., a football team that plays in China League One. The capital, Ürümqi, is home to the Xinjiang University baseball team, an integrated Uyghur and Han group profiled in the documentary film ''Diamond in the Dunes''.Transportation
Roads
In 2008, according to the Xinjiang Transportation Network Plan, the government has focused construction on State Road 314, Alar-Hotan Desert Highway, State Road 218, Qingshui River Line-Yining Highway and State Road 217, as well as other roads.
The construction of the first expressway in the mountainous area of Xinjiang began a new stage in its construction on 24 July 2007. The {{convert, 56, km, abbr=on highway linking Sayram Lake and Guozi Valley in Northern Xinjiang area had cost 2.39 billion yuan. The expressway is designed to improve the speed of national highway 312 in northern Xinjiang. The project started in August 2006 and several stages have been fully operational since March 2007. Over 3,000 construction workers have been involved. The 700 m-long Guozi Valley Cable Bridge over the expressway is now currently being constructed, with the 24 main pile foundations already completed. Highway 312 national highway Xinjiang section, connects Xinjiang with China's east coast, Central Asia, Central and West Asia, plus some parts of Europe. It is a key factor in Xinjiang's economic development. The population it covers is around 40 percent of the overall in Xinjiang, who contribute half of the GDP in the area.
Zulfiya Abdiqadir, head of the Transport Department was quoted as saying that 24,800,000,000 RMB had been invested into Xinjiang's road network in 2010 alone and, by this time, the roads covered approximately {{convert, 152000, km, abbr=on.{{cite web , date=3 March 2011 , editor=Su Qingxia ({{lang, zh-hans, 苏清霞) , title=祖丽菲娅·阿不都卡德尔代表：见证新疆交通事业的日益腾飞 , trans-title=Representative Zulfiya Abdiqadir: evidence that Xinjiang's transport projects are developing more with each passing day , url=http://news.ts.cn/content/2011-03/03/content_5636418.htm , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224215419/http://news.ts.cn/content/2011-03/03/content_5636418.htm , archive-date=24 February 2017 , access-date=24 February 2017 , website=Tianshannet , language=zh-hans
Rail
{{Unreferenced section, date=June 2023{{multiple image , perrow = 2 , align = right , direction = horizontal , header = , header_align = left/right/center , header_background = , footer = , footer_align = left/right/center , footer_background = , width = , image1 = UrumqiSouthSta.jpg , width1 = 254 , caption1 =Ürümqi South railway station , image2 = Kashgar station, Kashgar-city, Xinjiang, China.jpg , width2 = 213 , caption2 = Kashgar railway station , image3 = Lanxin Railway Train 01.jpg , width3 = 266 , caption3 = Lanzhou-Xinjiang Railway , image4 = 徳文托盖橋.jpg , width4 = 200 , caption4 = Southern Xinjiang Railway Xinjiang's rail hub is Ürümqi. To the east, Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway, a conventional and Lanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway, a high-speed rail line runs through Turpan and Hami to Lanzhou in Gansu Province. A Ejin–Hami railway, third outlet to the east connects Hami and Inner Mongolia. To the west, the Northern Xinjiang Railway, Northern Xinjiang runs along the northern footslopes of the Tian Shan range through Changji, Shihezi, Kuytun and Jinghe County, Jinghe to the Kazakh border at Alashankou, where it links up with the Turkestan–Siberia Railway. Together, the Northern Xinjiang and the Lanzhou-Xinjiang lines form part of the Eurasian Land Bridge, Trans-Eurasian Continental Railway, which extends from Rotterdam, on the North Sea, to Lianyungang, on the East China Sea. The Northern Xinjiang railway provides additional rail transport capacity to Jinghe, from which the Jinghe–Yining–Khorgos railway heads into the Ili River Valley to Yining, Huocheng County, Huocheng and Khorgos, a second rail border crossing with Kazakhstan. The Kuytun–Beitun railway runs from Kuytun north into the Junggar Basin to Karamay and Beitun, near Altay. In the south, the Southern Xinjiang railway from Turpan runs southwest along the southern footslopes of the Tian Shan into the Tarim Basin, with stops at Yanqi, Korla, Kuqa, Xinjiang, Kuqa, Aksu, Maralbexi County, Maralbexi (Bachu), Artux and Kashgar. From Kashgar, the Kashgar–Hotan railway, follows the southern rim of the Tarim to Hotan, with stops at Shule County, Shule, Akto County, Akto, Yengisar County, Yengisar, Yarkant County, Shache (Yarkant), Kargilik Town, Yecheng (Karghilik), Karakax County, Moyu (Karakax). There are also the Hotan–Ruoqiang railway and Golmud–Korla railway. The Ürümqi–Dzungaria railway connects Ürümqi with coal fields in the eastern Junggar Basin. The Hami–Lop Nur railway connects Hami with potassium salt mines in and around Lop Nur. The Golmud–Korla railway, opened in 2020, provides an outlet to Qinghai. Planning is underway on additional intercity railways.{{Cite web, last=, first=, date=, title=新疆将重点规划城际铁路 4小时经济圈已形成, trans-title=Xinjiang will focus on planning the formation of a four-hour economic circle for intercity railways, url=http://news.hebei.cm/newsshow-54187.html, access-date=2021-02-09, website=news.hebei.cm, language=zh, archive-date=23 September 2021, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923181859/http://news.hebei.cm/newsshow-54187.html, url-status=dead Railways Khunjerab Railway, to Pakistan and Kyrgyzstan have been proposed.{{citation needed, date=November 2020See also
{{Portal, China * Administrative divisions of ChinaNotes
{{notelist {{Reflist, group=nReferences
Citations
{{ReflistSources
{{refbegin, 30em, indent=yes * {{Cite book , title=History of civilizations of Central Asia. 5: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century , date=2003 , publisher=UNESCO Publishing , isbn=978-9-231-03876-1 , editor-last=Adle , editor-first=Chahryar , location=Paris * {{Cite book , last=Andreyev , first=Alexandre , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MqXnOBX4dREC , title=Soviet Russia and Tibet: The Debacle of Secret Diplomacy, 1918–1930s , publisher=Brill , year=2003 , isbn=978-9-004-12952-8 , series=Brill's Tibetan Studies Library , volume=4 * {{Cite book , last=Andreyev , first=Alexandre , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TI6fAwAAQBAJ , title=The Myth of the Masters Revived: The Occult Lives of Nikolai and Elena Roerich , publisher=Brill , year=2014 , isbn=978-9-004-27043-5 * {{Cite book , last=Baabar , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEpxAAAAMAAJ , title=Twentieth Century Mongolia, Volume 1 , publisher=White Horse Press , year=1999 , isbn=978-1-874267-40-9 , editor-last=Kaplonski , editor-first=Christopher * {{Cite book , last=Baabar , first=Bat-Ėrdėniĭn Batbayar , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXxxAAAAMAAJ , title=History of Mongolia , publisher=Monsudar Pub. , year=1999 , isbn=978-9-992-90038-3 , editor-last=Kaplonski , editor-first=Christopher * {{Cite book , last=Beckwith , first=Christopher I. , title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present , publisher=Princeton University Press , year=2009 , isbn=978-0-691-13589-2 , author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC , title=Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia , publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. , year=2007 , isbn=978-0-7546-7041-4 , editor-last=Bellér-Hann , editor-first=Ildikó , issn=1759-5290 * {{Cite book , last=Bellér-Hann , first=Ildikó , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC , title=Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur , publisher=Brill , year=2008 , isbn=978-9-004-16675-2 * {{Cite book , last=Bovingdon , first=Gardner , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrtIa77Sj2IC , title=The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land , publisher=Columbia University Press , year=2010 , isbn=978-0-231-51941-0 * {{Citation , last1=Hopper , first1=Ben , title=Migration, Modernisation and Ethnic Estrangement: Uyghur migration to Urumqi, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, PRC , journal=Inner Asia , volume=11 , issue=2 , pages=173–203 , year=2009 , doi=10.1163/000000009793066460 , last2=Webber , first2=Michael , agency=Global Oriental Ltd. * {{Citation , last=Sautman , first=Barry , title=Is Xinjiang an Internal Colony? , journal=Inner Asia , volume=2 , issue=33 , pages=239–271 , year=2000 , doi=10.1163/146481700793647788 * {{Citation , last=Qiu , first=Yuanyao , year=1994 , trans-title=China's population across the centuries: Xinjiang volume , script-title=zh:《跨世纪的中国人口：新疆卷》 , place=Beijing , publisher=China Statistics Press * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KGlJAAAAYAAJ , title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 23 , publisher=Maxwell Sommerville , year=1894 , edition=9th * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwELAQAAMAAJ , title=Harvard Asia Quarterly , publisher=Harvard Asia Law Society, Harvard Asia Business Club, and Asia at the Graduate School of Design , year=2005 , volume=9 * {{Cite book , last=Association for Linguistic Typology , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CxsLAQAAMAAJ , title=Linguistic Typology , publisher=Mouton de Gruyter , year=1998 , volume=2 * {{Cite journal , year=1876 , title=Contents , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4hJAAAAYAAJ , journal=Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society , series=New Series , location=Shanghai , publisher=Printed at the "Celestial Empire" Office 10-Hankow Road-10 , volume=X}(Another online copy)
* {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBoTAAAAYAAJ , title=Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command , publisher=H.M. Stationery Office , year=1871 , volume=51 * {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMIOAQAAIAAJ , title=Papers by Command , publisher=H.M. Stationery Office , year=1914 , volume=101 * {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Foreign Office. Historical Section, George Walter Prothero , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YZYzAQAAMAAJ , title=Handbooks Prepared Under the Direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, Issues 67–74 , publisher=H.M. Stationery Office , year=1920 * {{Cite book , last=Great Britain. Foreign Office. Historical Section , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpowAQAAMAAJ , title=China, Japan, Siam , year=1973 , isbn=978-0-8420-1704-6 , editor-last=George Walter Prothero , series=Peace Handbooks , volume=12 * {{Cite news , last=Burns , first=John F. , date=6 July 1983 , title=On Soviet-China Border, The Thaw Is Just A Trickle , work=The New York Times , url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/06/world/on-soviet-china-border-the-thaw-is-just-a-trickle.html * {{Cite book , last=Bretschneider , first=E. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R98-AAAAYAAJ , title=Notices of the Mediæval Geography and History of Central and Western Asia , publisher=Trübner & Company , year=1876 * {{Cite book , last1=Bridgman , first1=Elijah Coleman , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l5VCAAAAYAAJ , title=The Chinese Repository , last2=Williams , first2=Samuel Wells , publisher=Maruzen Kabushiki Kaisha , year=1837 , edition=reprint * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6is7AQAAMAAJ , title=The Chinese Repository , publisher=Kraus Reprint , year=1837 , edition=reprint , volume=5 * {{Cite book , last=Britannica Educational Publishing , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YcybAAAAQBAJ , title=The Geography of China: Sacred and Historic Places , publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing , year=2010 , isbn=978-1-61530-182-9 , editor-last=Pletcher , editor-first=Kenneth * {{Cite book , last=Britannica Educational Publishing , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVN0Gwx67YC , title=The Geography of China: Sacred and Historic Places , publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group , year=2011 , isbn=978-1-61530-134-8 , editor-last=Pletcherb , editor-first=Kenneth * {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Xinjiang: autonomous region, China , encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica , url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Xinjiang , date=9 August 2018 , orig-date=Online article added 26 July 1999 , last2=Hsieh , first2=Chiao-Min , first1=Victor C. , last1=Falkenheim * {{Cite book , last1=Benson , first1=Linda , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNct0NqCP8gC , title=China's Last Nomads: The History and Culture of China's Kazaks , last2=Svanberg , first2=Ingvar C. , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1998 , isbn=978-1-56324-782-8 * {{Cite book , last=Clarke , first=Michael E. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jRhHphtBg-QC , title=Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia – A History , publisher=Taylor & Francis , year=2011 , isbn=978-1-136-82706-8 * {{Cite thesis , last=Clarke , first=Michael Edmund , title=In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759–2004 , url=http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf , year=2004 , location=Brisbane , institution=Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies, Griffith University , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114903/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf , archive-date=6 July 2011 , access-date=7 May 2014 * {{Cite book , last=Crowe , first=David M. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aynFAgAAQBAJ , title=War Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History , publisher=Palgrave Macmillan , year=2014 , isbn=978-1-137-03701-5 * {{Cite book , last1=Dunnell , first1=Ruth W. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC , title=New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde , last2=Elliott , first2=Mark C. , last3=Foret , first3=Philippe , last4=Millward , first4=James A. , publisher=Routledge , year=2004 , isbn=978-1-134-36222-6 * {{Cite book , last1=Debata , first1=Mahesh Ranjan , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xe8CUZ0_r4C , title=China's Minorities: Ethnic-religious Separatism in Xinjiang , last2=Central Asian Studies Programme , publisher=Pentagon Press , year=2007 , isbn=978-81-8274-325-0 * {{Cite web , last=Dickens , first=Mark , year=1990 , title=The Soviets in Xinjiang 1911–1949 , url=http://www.oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023203643/http://www.oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm , archive-date=23 October 2008 , access-date=13 May 2014 , website=OXUS COMMUNICATIONS * {{Cite book , last=Dillon , first=Michael , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g25_AgAAQBAJ , title=Contemporary China – An Introduction , publisher=Routledge , year=2008 , isbn=978-1-134-29054-3 * {{Cite book , last=Dillon , first=Michael , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C , title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest , publisher=Routledge , year=2003 , isbn=978-1-134-36096-3 * {{Cite book , last1=Dupree , first1=Louis , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoIE4laY7JcC , title=The Modernization of Inner Asia , last2=Naby , first2=Eden , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1994 , isbn=978-0-87332-779-4 , editor-last=Black , editor-first=Cyril E. , edition=reprint * {{Cite book , last=Dwyer , first=Arienne M. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciShtCrJijIC , title=Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1 , publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag , year=2007 , isbn=978-3-447-04091-4 * {{Cite book , last=Elliott , first=Mark C. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC , title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China , publisher=Stanford University Press , year=2001 , isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9skBUtc0YTwC , title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Ch'ing 1800–1911 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=1978 , isbn=978-0-521-21447-6 , editor-last=Fairbank , editor-first=John K. , series=Vol. 10, Part 1 * {{Cite book , last=Fisher , first=Richard Swainson , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ik4BAAAAQAAJ , title=The book of the world , publisher=J. H. Colton , year=1852 , volume=2 * {{Cite book , last=Forbes , first=Andrew D. W. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ , title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 , publisher=CUP Archive , year=1986 , isbn=978-0-521-25514-1 * {{Cite web , last=Garnaut , first=Anthony , year=2008 , title=From Yunnan to Xinjiang: Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals , url=http://www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309054654/http://www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf , archive-date=9 March 2012 , access-date=17 April 2014 , publisher=Etudes Orientales N° 25 (1er Semestre 2008) * {{Cite book , last=Gernet , first=Jacques , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqb7L-pKCV8C , title=A History of Chinese Civilization , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=1996 , isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHwPAAAAYAAJ , title=Manchu Grammar, Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies , publisher=Brill Academic Pub , year=2002 , isbn=978-90-04-12307-6 , editor-last=Gorelova , editor-first=Liliya M. , series=Handbook of Oriental Studies , volume=7 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjD8NM4AyT8C , title=Toward Better Governance in China: An Unconventional Pathway of Political Reform , publisher=Lexington Books , year=2009 , isbn=978-0-7391-4029-1 , editor-last=Guo , editor-first=Baogang , editor-last2=Hickey , editor-first2=Dennis V. * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srUkAQAAIAAJ , title=Challenges facing Chinese political development , publisher=Lexington Books , year=2007 , isbn=978-0-7391-2094-1 , editor-last=Guo , editor-first=Sujian , editor-last2=Guo , editor-first2=Baogang * {{Cite book , last=Harris , first=Rachel , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQlxJdK6wGUC , title=Singing the Village: Music, Memory and Ritual Among the Sibe of Xinjiang , publisher=Oxford University Press , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-19-726297-9 * {{Cite book , last=Hill , first=John E. , title=Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd centuries CE , publisher=BookSurge , year=2009 , isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1 , location=Charleston, South Carolina * {{Cite thesis , last=Howell , first=Anthony J. , title=Population Migration and Labor Market Segmentation: Empirical Evidence from Xinjiang, Northwest China , degree=M.S. , publisher=Michigan State University , url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304941674 , isbn=978-1-109-24323-9 , year=2009 , id={{ProQuest, 304941674 * {{Cite book , last=Islamic Culture Board , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wTHjAAAAMAAJ , title=Islamic Culture , publisher=Deccan , year=1971 , isbn=978-0-8420-1704-6 , volume=27–29 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iT7YAQAAQBAJ , title=Return To The Silk Routes , publisher=Routledge , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-136-17519-0 , editor-last=Juntunen , editor-first=Mirja , editor-last2=Schlyter , editor-first2=Birgit N. * {{Cite book , last1=Lattimore , first1=Owen , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28wUAAAAIAAJ , title=Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia , last2=Nachukdorji , first2=Sh , publisher=Brill Archive , year=1955 * {{Cite book , last=Lattimore , first=Owen , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TS6QQAAACAAJ , title=Pivot of Asia; Sinkiang and the inner Asian frontiers of China and Russia , publisher=Little, Brown , year=1950 , isbn=978-0-404-10634-8 * {{Cite book , last=Levene , first=Mark , title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History , publisher=Berghahn , year=2008 , isbn=978-1-84545-452-4 , editor-last=Moses , editor-first=A. Dirk , location=Oxford and New York , pages=183–204 , chapter=Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocides , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZavAkGUNdSkC , title=Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration in China , publisher=Taylor & Francis , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-203-40429-4 , editor-last=Liew , editor-first=Leong H. , editor-last2=Wang , editor-first2=Shaoguang * {{Cite journal , last=Lin , first=Hsiao-ting , author-link=Lin Hsiao-ting , year=2007 , title=Nationalists, Muslims Warlords, and the "Great Northwestern Development" in Pre-Communist China , url=http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/CEF/Quarterly/February_2007/Lin.pdf , journal=China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly , volume=5 , issn=1653-4212 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923025246/http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/CEF/Quarterly/February_2007/Lin.pdf , archive-date=23 September 2010 , number=1 * {{Cite book , last=Lipman , first=Jonathan Neaman , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC , title=Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China , publisher=University of Washington Press , year=1998 , isbn=978-0-295-80055-4 * {{Cite book , last1=Liu , first1=Tao Tao , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ , title=Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China , last2=Faure , first2=David , publisher=Hong Kong University Press , year=1996 , isbn=978-962-209-402-4 * {{Cite book , last=Lorge , first=Peter , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htPxVEh3owAC , title=War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795 , publisher=Routledge , year=2006 , isbn=978-1-134-37286-7 * {{Cite book , last=Marks , first=Robert B. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iXVHL2mYajAC , title=China: Its Environment and History , publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers , year=2011 , isbn=978-1-4422-1277-0 * {{Cite book , last=Martin , first=Robert Montgomery , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SV9AAAAAYAAJ , title=China; Political, Commercial, and Social: In an Official Report to Her Majesty's Government , publisher=J. Madden , year=1847 , volume=1 , location=London * {{Cite book , last=Martyn , first=Norma , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hD3yAAAAMAAJ , title=The Silk Road , publisher=Methuen , year=1987 , isbn=978-0-454-00836-4 , location=Australia * {{Cite journal , last=Meehan , first=Lieutenant Colonel Dallace L. , date=May–June 1980 , title=Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Military implications for the decades ahead , url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html , journal=Air University Review , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513084042/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/may-jun/meehan.html , archive-date=13 May 2014 , access-date=13 May 2014 * {{Cite book , last1=Mentelle , first1=Edme , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CghUAAAAQAAJ , title=Géographie mathématique, physique & politique de toutes les parties du monde , last2=Malte Conrad Brun , last3=Pierre-Etienne Herbin de Halle , publisher=H. Tardieu , year=1804 , volume=12 * {{Cite book , last=Mesny , first=William , title=Mesny's Chinese Miscellany , year=1896 , volume=II , location=Shanghai , author-link=William Mesny * {{Cite book , last=Mesny , first=William , title=Mesny's Chinese Miscellany , year=1899 , volume=III , location=Shanghai , author-link=William Mesny * {{Cite book , last=Mesny , first=William , title=Mesny's Chinese Miscellany , year=1905 , volume=IV , location=Shanghai , author-link=William Mesny * {{Cite book , last=Michell , first=Robert , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reBFF3fWjPAC , title=Eastern Turkestan and Dzungaria, and the rebellion of the Tungans and Taranchis, 1862 to 1866 , publisher=Sagwan Press , year=2015 , isbn=978-1-340-54298-6 Reprint of: {{Cite book , title=Notes on the Central Asiatic Question , publisher=Office of Superintendent of Government Printing , year=1870 , editor-last=Romanovski , editor-first=M. , location=Calcutta * {{Cite book , last=Millward , first=James A. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ , title=Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 , publisher=Stanford University Press , year=1998 , isbn=978-0-8047-2933-8 * {{Cite book , last=Millward , first=James A. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC , title=Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang , publisher=Columbia University Press , year=2007 , isbn=978-0-231-13924-3 * {{Cite book , last=Morozova , first=Irina Y. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-1GRAgAAQBAJ , title=Socialist Revolutions in Asia: The Social History of Mongolia in the 20th Century , publisher=Routledge , year=2009 , isbn=978-1-135-78437-9 * {{Cite book , last=Myer , first=Will , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViEVNqYEG2oC , title=Islam and Colonialism Western Perspectives on Soviet Asia , publisher=Routledge , year=2003 , isbn=978-1-135-78583-3 * {{Cite book , last1=Nathan , first1=Andrew James , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etRkjLv8AosC , title=China's Search for Security , last2=Scobell , first2=Andrew , publisher=Columbia University Press , year=2013 , isbn=978-0-231-51164-3 * {{Cite book , last=Newby , first=L. J. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C , title=The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C.1760-1860 , publisher=BRILL , year=2005 , isbn=978-90-04-14550-4 , series=Brill's Inner Asian Library , volume=16 * {{Cite book , last=Nyman , first=Lars-Erik , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JNlwAAAAMAAJ , title=Great Britain and Chinese, Russian and Japanese interests in Sinkiang, 1918–1934 , publisher=Esselte studium , year=1977 , isbn=978-91-24-27287-6 , series=Lund studies in international history , volume=8 * {{Cite book , last=Paine , first=S. C. M. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMrx5Rw5n0AC , title=Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1996 , isbn=978-1-56324-724-8 * {{Cite book , last=Palmer , first=James , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_2oJYvNHAQC , title=The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia , publisher=Basic Books , year=2011 , isbn=978-0-465-02207-6 , edition=reprint{{dead link, date=September 2023 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite book , last=Parker , first=Charles H. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKgs8-pj4_YC , title=Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age, 1400–1800 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=2010 , isbn=978-1-139-49141-9 * {{Cite book , last=Pegg , first=Carole , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEGTwiCvd8C , title=Mongolian Music, Dance, & Oral Narrative: Performing Diverse Identities , publisher=University of Washington Press , year=2001 , isbn=978-0-295-98030-0 , volume=1 * {{Cite book , last=Perdue , first=Peter C. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC , title=China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia , publisher=Harvard University Press , year=2009 , isbn=978-0-674-04202-5 , edition=reprint * {{Citation , last=Perdue , first=Peter C. , title=Military Mobilization in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century China, Russia, and Mongolia , date=October 1996 , journal=Modern Asian Studies , volume=30 , issue=4 Special Issue: War in Modern China , pages=757–793 , doi=10.1017/s0026749x00016796 , jstor=312949 , s2cid=146587527 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5p_rjMLgj_8C , title=State Capitalism, Contentious Politics and Large-Scale Social Change , publisher=BRILL , year=2011 , isbn=978-90-04-19445-8 , editor-last=Pollard , editor-first=Vincent , series=Studies in Critical Social Sciences , volume=29 * {{Cite book , last1=Powers , first1=John , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVlyX6iSDEQC , title=Historical Dictionary of Tibet , last2=Templemanb , first2=David , publisher=Scarecrow Press , year=2012 , isbn=978-0-8108-7984-3 * {{Cite book , last=Prakash , first=Buddha , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-1HAAAAMAAJb , title=The modern approach to history , publisher=University Publishers , year=1963{{dead link, date=September 2023 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite book , last=Rahul , first=Ram , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tI77bC989PoC , title=March of Central Asia , publisher=Indus Publishing , year=2000 , isbn=978-81-7387-109-2 * {{Cite book , last1=Reed , first1=J. Todd , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC , title=The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat , last2=Raschke , first2=Diana , publisher=ABC-CLIO , year=2010 , isbn=978-0-313-36540-9 * {{Cite book , last=Roberts , first=John A.G. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZNiAQAAQBAJ , title=A History of China , publisher=Palgrave Macmillan , year=2011 , isbn=978-0-230-34411-2 , edition=revised , access-date=13 October 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429114744/https://books.google.com/books?id=GZNiAQAAQBAJ , archive-date=29 April 2016 * {{Cite book , last1=Rudelson , first1=Justin Jon , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=905wAAAAMAAJ , title=Bones in the Sand: The Struggle to Create Uighur Nationalist Ideologies in Xinjiang, China , last2=Rudelson , first2=Justin Ben-Adam , publisher=Harvard University , year=1992 , edition=reprint * {{Cite book , last=Rudelson , first=Justin Jon , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC , title=Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China's Silk Road , publisher=Columbia University Press , year=1997 , isbn=978-0-231-10786-0 {{ISBN, 0-231-10787-0 (pbk.). * {{Cite news , last=Ryan , first=William L. , date=2 January 1969 , title=Russians Back Revolution in Province Inside China , page=3 , work=The Lewiston Daily Sun , url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19690102&id=ylsgAAAAIBAJ&pg=4665,144363 * {{Cite book , last=Sanders , first=Alan J. K. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C , title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia , publisher=Scarecrow Press , year=2010 , isbn=978-0-8108-7452-7 , edition=3rd, illustrated , series=Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East , volume=74 * {{Cite book , last=Shelton , first=Dinah C. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-8YAAAAIAAJ , title=Encyclopedia of genocide and crimes against humanity , publisher=Macmillan Reference , year=2005 , isbn=978-0-02-865850-6 , editor-last=Shelton , editor-first=Dinah , volume=3 * {{Cite book , title=Aspects of Altaic Civilization III: Proceedings of the Thirtieth Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, June 19–25, 1987 , editor-last=Sinor , editor-first=Denis , volume=3 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWbAbwxMZXEC , title=Aspects of Altaic Civilization III: Proceedings of the Thirtieth Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, June 19–25, 1987 , publisher=Psychology Press , year=1990 , isbn=978-0-7007-0380-7 , editor-last=Sinor , editor-first=Denis * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC , title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-7656-1318-9 , editor-last=Starr , editor-first=S. Frederick * {{Cite book , last1=Seymour , first1=James D. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHwkn9pnjSwC , title=New Ghosts, Old Ghosts: Prisons and Labor Reform Camps in China , last2=Anderson , first2=Richard , publisher=M.E. Sharpe , year=1999 , isbn=978-0-7656-0510-8 , series=Socialism and Social Movements Series * {{Cite book , last=Tamm , first=Eric , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbpG8QEguXEC , title=The Horse that Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road, and the Rise of Modern China , publisher=Counterpoint , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-58243-876-4 , access-date=13 October 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801064813/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbpG8QEguXEC , archive-date=1 August 2020 * {{Cite book , last=Theobald , first=Ulrich , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUodAAAAQBAJ , title=War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776) , publisher=BRILL , year=2013 , isbn=978-90-04-25567-8 * {{Cite news , last=Tinibai , first=Kenjali , date=28 May 2010 , title=China and Kazakhstan: A Two-Way Street , work=Bloomberg Businessweek , url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705185320/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2010/gb20100528_168520.htm , archive-date=5 July 2015 * {{Cite news , last=Tinibai , first=Kenjali , date=27 May 2010 , title=Kazakhstan and China: A Two-Way Street , work=Transitions Online , url=http://www.tol.org/client/article/21490-kazakhstan-and-china-a-two-way-street.html , url-access=subscription * {{Cite book , last=Tyler , first=Christian , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C , title=Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang , publisher=Rutgers University Press , year=2004 , isbn=978-0-8135-3533-3 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OkAVAgAAQBAJ , title=Eurasian Corridors of Interconnection: From the South China to the Caspian Sea , publisher=Routledge , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-135-07875-1 , editor-last=Walcott , editor-first=Susan M. , editor-last2=Johnson , editor-first2=Corey * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXXnd81uoMoC , title=China and the New International Order , publisher=Taylor & Francis , year=2008 , isbn=978-0-203-93226-1 , editor-last=Wang , editor-first=Gungwu , editor-last2=Zheng , editor-first2=Yongnian * {{Cite book , last=Wayne , first=Martin I. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ybmWJXjxUYC , title=China's War on Terrorism: Counter-Insurgency, Politics and Internal Security , publisher=Routledge , year=2007 , isbn=978-1-134-10623-3 * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEdQ1IuJFH4C , title=China's Post-Jiang Leadership Succession: Problems and Perspectivesb , publisher=World Scientific , year=2002 , isbn=978-981-270-650-8 , editor-last=Wong , editor-first=John , editor-last2=Zheng , editor-first2=Yongnian * {{Cite book , last=Westad , first=Odd Arne , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uL8NoXZtyxMCb , title=Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 , publisher=Basic Books , year=2012 , isbn=978-0-465-02936-5{{dead link, date=September 2023 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEdQ1IuJFH4C , title=China's Post-Jiang Leadership Succession: Problems and Perspectives , publisher=World Scientific , year=2002 , isbn=978-981-270-650-8 , editor-last=Wong , editor-first=John , editor-last2=Zheng , editor-first2=Yongnian * {{Cite journal , last=Zhao , first=Gang , year=2006 , title=Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century , journal=Modern China , volume=32 , pages=3–30 , doi=10.1177/0097700405282349 , jstor=20062627 , s2cid=144587815 , number=1 * {{Cite book , last=Znamenski , first=Andrei , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J6T2uz1KSoC , title=Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia , publisher=Quest Books , year=2011 , isbn=978-0-8356-0891-6 , edition=illustrated {{refend
Further reading
{{Library resources box * {{cite journal, last=Côté, first=Isabelle, title=Political mobilization of a regional minority: Han Chinese settlers in Xinjiang, journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies, date=2011, volume=34, issue=11, pages=1855–1873, doi= 10.1080/01419870.2010.543692, s2cid=144071415 * {{cite web , last=Croner, first=Don, year=2009, url=http://dambijantsan.doncroner.com/JaLama-Chapter1.pdf, title=False Lama – The Life and Death of Dambijantsan, website=dambijantsan.doncroner.com, location=Ulaan Baatar, publisher=Don Croner, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903091310/http://dambijantsan.doncroner.com/JaLama-Chapter1.pdf, archive-date=3 September 2014 * {{cite web , last1=Croner, first1=Don, year=2010, url=http://dambijantsan.doncroner.com/JaLama.1-5.pdf, title=Ja Lama – The Life and Death of Dambijantsan, website=dambijantsan.doncroner.com, location=Ulaan Baatar, publisher=Don Croner , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903091401/http://dambijantsan.doncroner.com/JaLama.1-5.pdf, archive-date=3 September 2014 * Hierman, Brent. "The Pacification of Xinjiang: Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988–2002." Problems of Post-Communism, May/June 2007, Vol. 54 Issue 3, pp. 48–62. * {{cite book , last=Kim, first=Hodong, title=Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877, year=2004, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC, publisher=Stanford University Press, isbn= 978-0-8047-6723-1 * {{cite book , last=Kim, first=Kwangmin, title=Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696–1814, year=2008, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AywctwAACAAJ, publisher= University of California, isbn= 978-1-109-10126-3 * {{cite book , title=Peacemaking: From Practice to Theory, editor1-first=Susan Allen, editor1-last=Nan, editor2-first=Zachariah Cherian, editor2-last=Mampilly, editor3-first=Andrea, editor3-last=Bartoli, year=2011, publisher=ABC-CLIO, isbn=978-0-313-37576-7, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hx0p4RCdD4wC, oclc=715288234 {{ISBN, 978-0-3133-7576-7 (set); {{ISBN, 978-0-3133-7578-1 (v. 1); {{ISBN, 978-0-3133-7580-4 (v. 2); {{ISBN, 978-0-3133-7577-4 (ebk.). * Norins, Martin R. iarchive:gatewaytoasiasin00nori/, Gateway to Asia : Sinkiang, Frontier of the Chinese Far West (1944) * Yap, Joseph P. (2009). ''Wars With The Xiongnu – A translation From Zizhi Tongjian''. AuthorHouse. {{ISBN, 978-1-4490-0604-4 * {{Cite magazine, last=Yellinek, first=Roie, url=https://jamestown.org/program/islamic-countries-engage-with-china-against-the-background-of-repression-in-xinjiang/, title=Islamic Countries Engage with China Against the Background of Repression in Xinjiang, magazine=China Brief, volume=19, issue=5, publisher=Jamestown Foundation, date=5 March 2019, access-date=2020-05-08 * {{cite conference, title=Asiatische Forschungen, Volumes 73–75, conference=Universität Bonn. Ostasiatische Seminar, year=1982, publisher=O. Harrassowitz, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbILAAAAIAAJ, isbn=978-3-447-02237-8, lang=de * {{cite book , title= Bulletin de la Section de géographie , volume=10 , language=fr , year=1895 , location=Paris , publisher=Imprimerie Nationale , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MysOTiETbsC * {{cite book , title=Ethnological Information on China: A Collection; Articles from Various Issues of Sovetskai͡a Ėtnografii͡a (Moscow), year=1969, publisher=CCM Information Corporation, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2RA5AAAAIAAJ * {{cite book , title=Inner Asia, Volume 4, Issues 1–2, year=2002, publisher=The White Horse Press for the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit at the University of Cambridge , isbn= 978-0-8047-2933-8 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1RuAAAAMAAJ * {{cite news, agency=UPI, date=22 September 1981, title=Radio war aims at China Moslems, url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19810922&id=3oAxAAAAIBAJ&pg=5348,448513, newspaper=The Montreal Gazette, page=11, via=Google NewsExternal links
* {{Commons category-inline * {{Wiktionary-inline, Xinjiang, Sinkiang, Hsin-chiang, Chinese Turkestan, Chinese Turkistan, East Turkestan, East Turkistan * {{Wikivoyage-inline * {{Britannica, Xinjiang {{- {{Geographic location , Northwest = East Kazakhstan Province, East Kazakhstan and Almaty Provinces, {{flag, Kazakhstan , North = {{flag, Altai Republic, {{flag, Russia , Northeast = {{flag, Bayan-Ölgii, {{flag, Khovd and {{flag, Govi-Altai Provinces, {{flag, Mongolia , West = {{flagicon image, Issyk kul obl flag.svg Issyk Kul Region, Issyk Kul, {{flagicon image, Naryn obl flag.svg Naryn Region, Naryn and {{flagicon image, Flag of Osh.svg Osh Regions, {{flag, KyrgyzstanGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province, {{flag, Tajikistan
Badakhshan Province, {{flag, Afghanistan , Centre = Xinjiang , East = Gansu , Southwest = {{flag, Gilgit-Baltistan, {{flag, Pakistan
{{flag, Ladakh, {{flag, India
Aksai Chin, Disputed region of Aksai Chin , South = Tibet Autonomous Region , Southeast = Qinghai {{Xinjiang topics {{Xinjiang {{Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China {{Inner Asia {{Authority control Xinjiang, 1955 establishments in China Articles containing video clips Autonomous regions of China Historical regions Iranian languages regions Inner Asia States and territories established in 1955 Turkic autonomous regions in China Western China